Ap European History Notes

Unit ONE
Late Middle Ages, Renaissance, Reformation

Essay Outline #1 kk

Introduction
The Catholic Reformation was developed to rebuild Roman Catholicism and put an end to the spread of Protestantism.
Appealed to the community by reviving catholic ideas and getting rid of corruption restored the Catholic Church.
As a counter attack to the Protestant Reformation, Catholic teachings were reinforced in an effort to oppress Protestant beliefs.

Luther’s Main Beliefs
Humans can reach salvation through justification by faith alone (through faith in God, not good works).
The bible is supreme authority, believed in the two sacraments of Baptism and Communion, was in between consubstantiation and transubstantiation.
Had a value in all vocations and believed marriage was good and healthy for priests.
Supported the priesthood of all believers, stating that the church includes all believers.

Catholic Beliefs
The Jesuits and Ignatius of Loyola established many highly disciplined schools.
Francis Xavier developed schools and missions in Asia and other countries to counter Protestant beliefs.
Pope Paul III and Paul IV re-established honor to the Papacy and created the Holy Office.
Roman–Catholic Church reformed papacy to exterminate corruption and prove the value in the Catholic Church.

Council of Trent
Declared that only the Church could interpret the Scripture and recognized the authority of the popes.
To reach salvation it was required to have strong faith in God and do good works.
The seven sacraments were restored along with transubstantiation and clerical celibacy.
Obtained doctrines that presented the popes with supremacy over all bishops and councils.

Conclusion
The Catholic Reformation was initiated through the want to afflict Protestant beliefs.
Rebuilt and restored the Roman–Catholic Church but mended the corruption within the popes.
Also known as the Counter Reformation, established a system that got rid of corruption and could no longer be taken over.

Essay Outline #4

Introduction
Europeans started a lager scale of trade all around the world; also developed the Triangular Trade Route.
Population increased by 20 million, which lead to a greater demand for goods.
Price inflation caused the value of money to drop while prices continued to rise.
Thesis: Certain factors such as the development of the Triangular Trade Route, increase in population, price inflation, and the achievements of joint–stock companies, all led to the growth of a flourishing economic and political system known as commercial capitalism.

Trade and Mercantilism
A route that allowed Europeans to trade with Africa, the Americas, and Asia.
Trade and mercantilism became very successful; people began to trade at a larger and more global scale.
Finite amount of wealth; bring as much wealth to your country as possible.
A favorable balance of trade meant that you sold more than you bought and bought only from people of your own country.

Population Growth
The growth of population by 20 million caused a greater demand for goods.
More people coming in meant more people wanting to buy products and majorly helped the buyers market.
The greater demand for goods helped the economic productivity and increased the value of goods.
Many people had money to spend, which later also led to the development of inflation.

Price Revolution
Price inflation meant that the value of money went down while prices went up.
Traders and merchants become successful but other businesses and stock companies drop.
Joint stock companies emerged and entrepreneurs made combined investments.
New industries of mining, shipbuilding, and weapon making also began to develop.

Conclusion
Mercantilism and the finite amount of wealth along with the favorable balance of trade.
The local system converted to a more global national state system of a larger nation.
The decline of early commercial centers sparked the ideas of private ownership of property and an ever-expanding system known as commercial capitalism.

Unit TWO
Exploration, Conquest, State Building

Essay Outline #2
Issues (King vs. Parliament) How they were resolved
Parliament wants more power over the king

King wants Divine Right with no Parliament involved

House of Commons wants to have a say in the government

King wants to keep the old Catholic-style hierarchy (absolute monarchy)

Puritans wanted the Scottish Presbyterian model (elect leaders) King gave nobles weak positions in Versailles to make the feel important

Strengthen authority by eliminating armies and cities of Huguenots

Parliament tries to create documents reasoning with the King

Demolish warrants created by Parliament that limited king’s power

Petition of Right 1628, king needs Parliaments consent

**all leading to the English Civil War

Unit Three
The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment Choose one of the following questions to write a formal essay outline including: a thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting evidence, and concluding statement. Write a paragraph response for the other three.

What impact did the Scientific Revolution have on society and religion? The Scientific Revolution greatly impacted society and religion mainly through the conversion to a more secular civilization and the attempt to revive the importance of God. Many scientists began to question and test old ideas along with church thinking with scientific observations, experiments, and logic. Multiple advancements in science lead to people realizing that science can be used to learn more about nature and the universe. Study, reasoning, and scientific discoveries began to take the place of past ideas and religion as the way of attaining and understanding of our universe. With the shift from religious to scientific explanations, came the emerge of philosophers and other Christians trying to convert rationalists and empiricists to Christianity. Philosopher Spinoza and French scientist Pascal, both expressed in their writings that the way the universe functioned revolved around God and his laws. Pantheism and the idea that we are all connected to God, all contributed to the effort of re-conversion to Christianity. The impact of the Scientific Revolution on society and religion held great importance because it changed the views and significance of humans in the universe.

Did scientific advances help or hurt women’s rights? Scientific advances further abolished women’s rights by proving male dominance and using biological difference as a weakness. Males viewed women as sexually unstable, easily swayed, prone to bad behavior beings that needed to be controlled. Science was used to prove inferiority by showing that a women’s body was made to give birth and had smaller skulls, which meant that they had smaller brains, making men superior. Women were excluded from universities and other science societies making it difficult for them to receive an education. Women began to argue that they were self-sufficient and if they were granted with education, they would be able to be seen as equals to, and even surpass, men in society. Because they believed they were equally rational, learned, or educated, women strived to overcome their “natural” state and become more like men. The Scientific Revolution reiterated the traditional role of women in society causing them to be inferior to men and leaving them with no way to challenge scientific facts.

What was “new” and what was not new about the seventeenth century’s “New Heaven and New Earth”? Introduction
The old belief was the geocentric conception of the Ptolemaic universe.
The church belief that God made the earth special for mankind; different physical laws for earth and outer space.
Shift from geocentric to Copernicus’ heliocentric conception; challenges role of humans and God in the universe.
Thesis: The new ideas of the “New Heaven” and “New Earth” disproved the old ideas of a perfectly circular geocentric universe by proposing the new scientific discoveries of gravity, inertia, motion, and an imperfect, elliptical, heliocentric universe.

Kepler
Published three laws of planetary motion that disproves the Ptolemaic system; allows people to think in new ways.
First law of motion: Orbits are elliptical, not circular like Ptolemy and Aristotle proposed.
Second law of motion: planets move and spin on axis faster when closer to the sun vs. further away.
Third law of motion: the time a planet takes to orbit the sun varies based on distance from the sun.

Galileo
Created the first spyglass, (telescope) allowed him to make many astronomic discoveries.
Used controlled experiments to come up with laws of motion and inertia expressed through math formulas.
Heavenly bodies are not perfect; craters, sunspots, extra moons (Starry Messenger).
Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina of Tuscany; addresses conflicts between bible and heliocentric theory.

Newton
Medieval picture of the universe is replaced by the idea that it is infinite and governed by universal laws.
God has the wisdom and skill of a powerful ever-living agent; universe is a uniform machine operating in absolute time, space & motion.
Wrote Principia, combined laws of planetary motion (Kepler), laws of inertia (Galileo), and own ideas of gravitation.
Disproves Aristotle’s idea that two different laws govern the earth and heaven.

Conclusion
All old and religious beliefs are challenged by new scientific discoveries.
Science became a threat to Christianity; scientists had to move toward Protestant countries.
Arguments of the bible being interpreted with scientific knowledge and not literally.

Assess the impact of the Scientific Revolution on religion and philosophy in the period 1550 to 1750. The Scientific Revolution impacted religion and philosophy during the time period 1550 to 1750 through the efforts and beliefs of Rene Descartes. Descartes, a French noble with a Jesuit education, erased his mind from all past religious ideas and theories to prove everything purely with science and with no religious influence. He only accepted philosophies based on reason and rejected any religious belief that did not have a logical explanation. This disregarded and religious impact on philosophy. Descartes also supported rationalism and deductive reasoning which promoted logic and thinking as the main source of knowledge over religion and past beliefs. Societies views on religion and philosophy were greatly changed by the theories and proposals made by Descartes that offered a new role of humankind leading to a new modernized function of earth and the universe.

Essays:
Choose one of the following questions to write a formal essay outline including: a thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting evidence, and concluding statement. Write a paragraph response for the other three. You can draft an outline response of all four, if you’d like.

To what degree did eighteenth-century Prussia, Austria, and Russia exhibit the characteristics of enlightened absolutism?
Introduction
Having an absolute ruler with enlightened principles would be the best way to reform and benefit society.
All people have natural rights that cannot be changed of tampered with; also protected by enlightened ruler.
Rulers should support equality under law and promote the arts, sciences and education.
Thesis: Enlightened despotism was evident in Austria, through the efforts of Joseph II, but less so in Prussia and Russia where monarchs put their political concerns first.

Austria
War of Austrian Succession allowed Maria Theresa to become the ruler of Austria through the Pragmatic Sanction.
Maria Theresa tries to consolidate power; not enlightened but teaches her son, Joseph II, to be.
Joseph II abolishes serfdom and has equality before law and religious toleration.
Had all enlightened ideals but not supported by nobles so ideas were not put into action.

Prussia
Fredrick William I consolidates power through a civil bureaucracy and built a strong military
Allowed middle classmen to hold government positions but peasants still gained no advantage.
Made the General Dictionary that directed central government and controlled military, police, economic and financial affairs.
Fredrick II the Great was semi-enlightened because loved war and supported nobles but also religious toleration and limited freedom of speech/press.

Russia
Catherine the Great wants to be enlightened but says it will ruin her empire and turn it bad.
Strengthened the positions of nobles and was pro-serfdom; always favored the nobles.
Charter of Nobility said that nobles could have self-rule if Catherine gained a greater power over Russia.
Peasants had very poor conditions so held revolts; one led by Emelyan Pugachev’s revolt also called Cossack revolts.

Conclusion
Joseph II really was enlightened but nobles did not support him so Austria never became and enlightened country.
Fredrick II was semi-enlightened because had enlightened ideas but loved war and used military too much.
Catherine the Great thought of being enlightened but nobles convinced her it would turn the empire bad.
Showing that enlightened despotism was most evident in Austria only because Joseph II was truly enlightened.

Examine the causes of the economic expansion in the 18th century. Economic expansion in the 18th century was best characterized through the causes and establishment of global economy. During this time period, many merchants and other people began taking an interest in other countries. This brought an increase in world trade with Africa and the New World. The mercantilists interest in outside economy lead to and increase in global trade. European economy was affected by this growth in trade because it was evident in many appearing towns and cities. This also led to the development of port cities brought a growth of industry. Another indirect influence of economic expansion was the mass production of textiles, sugar, tobacco, and growing numbers of workers. The establishment of global economy greatly illustrated economic expansion because it largely transformed mercantilism in many towns and cities.

Given the numerous social and economic changes of the eighteenth century, those at the bottom of society often found themselves worse off than in earlier centuries. Explain why this is true. The numerous social and economic changes of the 18th century, such as new enclosure acts and the appearance of more taxes, led to people in the bottom of society to be in worse conditions than before. When serfdom was abolished, it became harder for peasants to find work. Most had family farms but there certain passed laws caused them to be insufficient and unable to support the average family. The enclosure acts allowed rich landowners to fence off pieces of land, combining smaller farms into one large farm. This took a great amount of land away from the peasants. To make it impossible for peasants to buy back their land, the government placed taxes on land called tithes. These tithes called for peasants to owe 1/3 of their crops to the local priests. However, this tax went to the rich landowners instead. With such a high tax on very little production, the peasants had no hope of buying the land that they lost. These social and economic changes, while meant to “benefit” society, only made it more difficult for peasants to make a living.

How did the concepts of “balance of power” and “reason of state” influence international relations in the eighteenth century? The concepts of “balance of power” and “reason of state” influenced international relations in the 18th century which can be illustrated by the partition of Poland and the desire to gain more land. The balance of power was meant to create an equal status between each country and state. This meant that not one country could be more powerful than another. The partition of Poland into three equal parts between Austria, Russia, and Prussia showed an example of how power was divided between countries. The reason of state advocated leaders trying to develop a long-term future for their states instead of gaining more power for themselves. Increasing the power of the state brought the want to gain more land. This brought the appearance of more wars between countries. These two concepts, not meant to bring peace, correlated with each other causing and upbringing of new international relations.

Chapter 21 Essays:
Answer the following in paragraph fashion:

What did the Congress of Vienna hope to accomplish and how well did it achieve its goals?

What were the chief ideas associated with the ideology of conservatism and how were these put into practice from 1815-1830?

Why were the ideologies of liberalism, nationalism and socialism considered revolutionary?

What caused the Revolutions of 1848 and were they successful?

Chapter 22 Essays:
Essays:
Assess the accomplishments and failures of Louis Napoleon’s regime in terms of the impact his policies had on France.

What role did war and diplomacy play in the unification movements of Italy and Germany?

What were the chief ideas of Marxism?

How did the expansion of scientific knowledge affect the Western world view and the everyday lives of Europeans during the mid-nineteenth century?

Chapter 23 Essays:
To what extent did the emergence and development of socialist parties and trade unions meet the needs of the working classes between 1871 and the end of the century?

Why do historians focus so much attention on the middle class during the period between 1870-1894?

Had the roles of women changed during he second half of the nineteenth century?

How were the promises of a new mass society reflected in education and leisure?

Chapter 24 Essays:
What developments in science, intellectual affairs, and the arts of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries “opened the way to a modern consciousness,” and how did the consciousness differ from earlier worldviews?

What gains did women make in their movement toward equal rights?

What were the causes of the new imperialism that took place after 1880, and what effects did European imperialism have on Africa and Asia?

Chapter 25 Essays:
Discuss the causes of World War I: What were the major long-term causes of the war? How important were the decisions made in the summer of 1914 in causing the war?

How did wartime governments maintain public order and mobilize public opinion during the course of the war?

What caused the Russian Revolution? How did the Bolsheviks secure their power?

Can the Treaty of Versailles be viewed as a successful settlement of the war?

Chapter 12: The Age of the Renaissance

Italian Renaissance:

Definition: The “rebirth” of antiquity or Greco-Roman civilization (1350 to 1550). It was a distinct period in Europe that began in Florence, Italy and spread to the rest of Europe. It was a smooth transition from the Middle Ages (that lasted 1000 years), yet there was still and economic, political, and social life. Italy was an urban society but became a land of independent cities that dominated country districts. City-states became the center of Italian political, economic, and social life, increasing secularism and the desire of worldly possessions.
Characteristics: It was the renewal of interest and the beginning of geographical (New World) and intellectual discoveries. People of the Renaissance thought they were the beginning of the modern age and separated themselves from the Medieval Ages. However, the Middle Ages was still apart of the Renaissance, many political changes took place, humanism displayed brilliant ideas, literary interests grew, and there was a huge religious movement that affected the world, called the Reformation. The Renaissance was also a recovery from the tragic and shameful Middle Ages that nearly destroyed Europe. Lastly, it emphasized individualism and self-awareness.

Jacob Burckhardt:

Famous: A Swiss historian and art critic who created the modern concept of the Renaissance in his book The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy in 1860. He said that Italy was the birthplace of the revival of antiquity and secularism. Burckhardt exaggerated that the Renaissance was secular and individualized, but it was based on religious opinions.
Importance: He created the modern concept of the Renaissance and what life was about back then. He sparked debate about what the Renaissance was truly about and he established the modern framework for all modern interpretations of the period.

Leon Battisti Alberti:

Famous: A Florentine architect that emphasized individuality and the willingness to strive.
Important: This created a new social ideal of the well-rounded person who could achieve in all areas of life. People gained self-respect and realized their potential, which they used to develop as a person for the best.

Making of Renaissance Society:

Definition: The economy finally recovered from the social upheavals in the 14th century, due to the increase in manufacturing and trade.
Importance: Europe improved after the terrible Middle Ages epidemic, through economic recovery, the expansion of trade, luxury industries were developed, and Banks grew with the Medici’s.

Hanseatic League of Merchants:

Definition: In the 13th century, coastal North German towns made a commercial and military group called the Hansa (aka Hansieatic League of Merchants). In the 1500s there were 80 cities from the League that established settlements and profitable bases in England and northern Europe (Denmark, Norway, & Sweden). In the North they traded timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, and wines, while in the South (Flanders, a port city of Bruges) was the meeting place and economic crossroad. But the League ended with the developing of large territorial states.
Importance: This commercial and military group from North Germany expanded into 80 cities that established settlements and profitable ports in Northern Europe. North was for trade, while South was an economic crossroad. However, Hansa was replaced by big regional states.

House of Medici:

1. Commerce: They controlled industrial projects for wool, silk, and the mining of alum for dyeing textiles.
2. Real Estate: They owned bank branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. In 1494, the French banned them from Florence and took all of their property.
3. Banking: It was the greatest bank in Europe, with branches in Venice, Milan, Rome, Avignon, Bruges, London, and Lyons. They were also the principal bankers for the papacy, where they gained big profits and influence in the papal court. But the Medici bank declined due to bad loans (uncollectible loans to rulers) and poor leadership.

Castiglione’s Book of the Courtier:

Definition: In 1528, the Italian Baldassare Castiglione (1478-1529), published The Book of the Courtier. It became a popular handbook for European aristocrats. He described
The 3 tributes of the perfect lord/lady—
Nobles should possess fundamental native traits (character, grace, talents, and noble birth)
Develop certain achievements; be in the military and exercise, have a classical education, play an instrument/draw/paint, and have a well-developed personality.
Act accordingly; make a good impression while being modest and graceful.
Importance: It was the ideals that were expected of an aristocrat. A perfect noble was to serve his prince in an honest and effective way. Nobles dominated European life socially and politically.

Italian States in the Renaissance: Importance: Italy was a land of 5 major states and many independent city-states. Increased success and a supportive intellectual area, allowed middle and upper classes to rediscover Greco-Roman Culture. Also, modern diplomacy came out of Renaissance Italy.

Condottiere:

Definition: When city-states relied on mercenary soldiers, it was the leaders who sold these services of their bands to the highest bidder.
Importance: These sold mercenaries wrecked havoc and caused larger, regional states to continue to grow while the small ones shrunk. So, the dictatorial Milan and the republic Florence and Venice dominated Italy in the late 1300s.

Cosimo d’Medici of Florence: (1434-1464)

Definition: He contributed lots of $$ to the rebuilding of the Church of San Lorenzo. Also, he funded a translation of Plato’s dialogues by Marsilio Ficino, one of the Florentine Platonic Academy leaders. He took control of the Florentine oligarchy and tried to keep it a republic government for the state, but he ran the government in secret. He funded and chose his political allies wisely in order to dominate the city when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance.
Importance: While Cosimo was running covert operations for the government, he dominated Florence to be the center of the cultural Renaissance.

Girolamo Savonarola: (1452-1498)

Famous: A monk who preached to large crowds on how the world was corrupt and how the popes were misleading. He promised a splendid future once Florence was purified. As the Medici were exiled, Savonarola ruled by a theocracy. His pros were cutting taxes, giving citizens power, and reducing crime. However, he banned swearing, gambling, and slutty clothes and enforced this through vice squads of street peasants. He burned vain belongings but was tortured and killed in 1498. He had paused the Renaissance for 4 years and it never was the same.

Italian States:

1. Milan (the Duchy of Milan)-After the Visconti ruler died in 1447, Francesco Sforza, a condottieri, turned on his Milanese employers, conquered the city, and became its duke. The Visconti and Sforza have created a centralized territorial state, through taxation that increased government income.
2. Venice (the Republic of Venice)-A seafaring republic remained a stable political and independent state governed by an oligarchy of merchant-aristocrats. The commerce based empire brought income that caused it to be viewed as an international power. By the end of the 1300s, Venice tried to protect trade routes and food, but their mainland expansion seemed to pose a threat to Milan and Florence.
3. Florence (the Republic of Florence)-In the 1400s in the area of Tuscany, a small merchant oligarchy twisted the republican government. So in 1434 Cosimo de’Medici took control and “kept the government republican”. He used favoritism and carefully selected political allies and his grandson, Lorenzo the Magnificent (1469-1492), dominated the city when Florence was the center of the cultural Renaissance.
4. Papal States-In central Italy, where the popes normally politically controlled the land, the Great Schism allowed territories to become independent of papal authority. The popes of the 1400s tried to reestablish their control of the Papal States.
5. Naples (Kingdom of Naples)-In southern Italy and Sicily, where the French and Aragonese fought for domination. Naples was a backward monarchy with a population of many poverty-stricken peasants who were ruled by nobles. It was uninfluenced by the Renaissance.

Federigo da Montefeltro of Urbino and Isabella d’Este: (+Christine de Pizan in Ch. 11)

Famous: He was provided a classical education from the famous humanist school in Mantua (run by Vittorino da Feltre). He also knew how to fight due to his family’s compensation for the poor. He was an unusual condottiere and wasn’t the smartest, but he was reliable and trustworthy. He was one of the greatest patrons of Renaissance culture. He was so well liked that he could walk the streets of Urbino and not be harmed.
Importance: His ruling from 1444-1482 allowed him to create Urbino into a cultural and intellectual center. He was a despot but he was still warm-hearted to the citizens, which allowed him to be one of the most liked rulers at this time.

Peace of Lodi: (1454)

Definition: Italy’s broken up states allowed the concept of balancing power to prevent one state gaining more power while taking away another’s. In 1454, the treaty signed by Italian states ended a 50 year war and ended with 40 years of peace. It was Milan, Florence, and Naples vs. Venice and the papacy for balance of power. But it failed to make lasting cooperation and a common foreign policy.
Importance: Italy created the political practice of balancing power, but it failed because the powers couldn’t cooperate and make a shared foreign policy.

French-Spanish Wars: (1527)

Definition: Italy was a battlefield the Spanish and French monarchies because of the bad balancing of power and it encouraged invasions. So the Duke of Milan, Ludovico Sforza, allowed the French King Charles VIII to enter Italian politics. Charles with 30,000 men took Naples and Italy asked Spain for help. Ferdinand of Aragon agreed and Spain and France fought to control Italy. In 1510, Francis I of France and Charles I of Spain fought during the Valois and Habsburg dynasties.
Importance: Italy was vulnerable after the Peace of Lodi ended, and Spain and France fought in Italy in an attempt to control it.

Sack of Rome:

Definition: In 1527 Rome was sacked by Spanish King Charles I, which temporarily ended the wars and gave Spain power of Italy.
Importance: Spain controlled Italy after they took Rome. Some Italians though that they were different from foreigners, while some thought they should unite their states to fight foreigners. They didn’t unify nor invade until 1870.

Ambassadors:

Definition: He is the servant of all Christendom=Middle Ages. There were so many little states that each one began to send agents to other states to find out key info=Renaissance. Ambassadors spread through Europe during the Italian wars (1500s-1600s). It changed to the idea of them being an agent of the territorial state that sent him, not Christendom, and he could use any method that worked.
Importance: The modern diplomatic system is from the Renaissance, when an “agent is sent to another state/country, and they find important info”. The interests of the states are more important than anything else.

Niccolo Machiavelli’s “The Prince”:

Famous: He was a secretary to the Florentine Council of Ten but when Spain won the war and the Medici’s came back into power, he was tortured and exiled. He wrote “The Prince” because his obsession with Italy’s political problems and his knowledge of Rome. He thought a prince should be self-centered, be feared not loved, have no guilt, it’s acceptable to do bad things for a good reason, and men are immoral.
Importance: Machiavelli was the first to abandon the difference between right and wrong in order to analyze political activity.

Cesare Borgia:

Famous: The Italian ruler and son of Pope Alexander VI used ruthless ways to carve out a new state in central Italy.
Definition: He is what Machiavelli used as an example of “The Prince”.

Erasmus’s “Education of a Christian Prince”:

Definition: He was a man who spoke classic Latin, traveled Europe, and spread word of his reform. He wanted to gain inner faith and rid of worldly possessions, sacraments, and pilgrimages (all external forms of religion). He edited the Greek New Testament and made a Latin version too. The Reformation over rid his restoration of the Church. He disagreed with Luther and Protestants because they wanted to destroy the medieval Christianity, but Erasmus wanted to restore it.
Importance: Most influential of the northern Renaissance humanists. He wanted to restore Christianity to the early teachings of Jesus. He wanted to reform the Christian church to being a way of life, not dictatorial.

The Intellectual Renaissance in Italy:

Humanism:

Definition: An intellectual movement based on Greco-Roman culture. Humanists studied liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy or ethics, and history) =humanities. Devotion was shown through your job, whether a teacher, professor, or secretary of the heads of Italian city-states or princes/popes courts. Largely secular as opposed to clergymen.
Importance: Most important literary movement in Renaissance.

Francesco Petrarch:

Famous: He was the first to call the Medieval Ages a dark time that didn’t have classical antiquity. He lived with princes in Italy and was conceded. He found forgotten Latin manuscripts and read secular readings. But sometimes he thought he was unreligious, yet moved onto making classic Latin fashionable and elite.
Importance: Father of the Italian Renaissance humanism.

Civic Humanism (with Florence):

Definition: Humanism took a new direction in 1400s when it became close to Florentine town pride. An intellectual movement of the Italian Renaissance that saw Cicero, who was an intellectual and a statesman, as the inspiration and said that humanists should be involved in government and use their persuasive training in the service of the state.
Importance: Different type of humanism that was state/government related instead of individualism.

Lorenzo Valla:

Famous: Born in Rome, he was educated in Latin and Greek and became a papal secretary. He tried to purify Medieval Latin and restore Latin to its vernacular (common language), making a new literary standard. He identified stages of Latin but only accepted the last century of the Roman Republic Latin.

Leonardo Bruni:

Famous: A humanist, Florentine patriot, and legal official of Florence. Wrote a biography on Cicero called “The New Cicero”, about how blended politics with literary creation. He was the first Italian humanist to understand Greek

Cicero:

Famous: The classical Roman Cicero that was a statesman and intellectual became the model of civic humanism. He was the inspiration for people to live for their state; he thought that you were supposed to better yourself for your city-state.

Pico de Mirandola:

Famous: He and Marsilio Ficino were magi and he wrote “Oration on the Dignity of Man”. He thought humans had unlimited potential they had to work for. He accepted Hermetic philosophy=religion is part of nature, due to alchemy, magic, and philosophy.

Education in the Renaissance:

Vittorino da Feltre (Mantua):

Famous: He founded the Mantua school in 1423 that was aided by the ruler Gian Francesco I Gonzanga for his children. He based his educational system on classical authors’ ideas (Cicero and Quintilian). Children were taught liberal studies and P.E. (javelin throwing, archery, dancing, running, wrestling, hunting, and swimming) for a sound mind in a sound body. School was for elite males and few poor/women.

“Liberal Studies”:

Definition: History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar and logic), poetry, math, astronomy, and music.
Importance: To make individuals who were virtuous and wise and could persuade others to follow them.

Pietro Vergerio and “Concerning Character”:

Famous: His work stressed the importance of the liberal arts as the key to freedom and allowing individuals to reach their potential.

Purpose of Liberal Arts:

Definition: The key to freedom and to create complete citizens that could participate in the civic life of their communities.

Purpose of Humanist Education:

Definition: Combined the classics with Christianity and elite males (few poor/women) were educated on multiple humanities that would aid them reach their own potential.

Francesco Guicciardini:
Famous: Called the greatest historian between Tacitus (1st century) and Voltaire and Gibbon (18th century). He wrote “History of Italy” and “History of Florence” and wanted to teach lessons by emphasizing political and military history that relied on personal example and documents.

Johannes Gutenburg:

Famous: From Mainz, he printed the first true book in the West through movable type, “Gutenburg’s Bible”.

Printing Press:

Importance: The most important technological inventions of Western civilization. Now you could print many words with the moving metal type. It spread quickly throughout Europe, and many religious, classics, medieval grammars, philosophy, and romances were printed. Printing was one of the largest industries in Europe and it motivated scholarly research and wanting to learn. It also caused a wider audience (this helped spread the Reformation).

The Artistic Renaissance:

Masaccio:

Famous: From Florence, he made frescoes in the Branacci Chapel that was the first masterpiece of Early Renaissance art. He painted large figures, proportion between people and place, and the laws of perspective, he created a realistic style of painting. “Tribute Money”=Jesus and council telling Peter to get a coin from a fish’s mouth.

Sandro Bottecelli:

Famous: Funded by Lorenzo the Magnificent, he took interest in Greek and Roman mythology, such as in “Primavera”. The figures are detailed and contain an out of this world quality, not from the Early Renaissance art.

Donato Donatello:

Famous: Sculpture and architecture were advanced too; Donatello spent time in Rome studying/copying Greco-Roman statues and created his own work. Such as “David”=the first known, life-size male nude since antiquity. It still contains a religious theme (Goliath) but it also glorifies the human body.

Filippo Brunelleschi:

Famous: Donatello’s friend, also studied Roman antiquity architecture and was assigned to finish the cathedral “the Duomo’s” roof and he created the brilliant engineering ideas to create a domed roof. Also, he did the Church of San Lorenzo for the Medicis that were not divine but proportionate and appropriate for humans, with classical columns, rounded arches, and coffered ceilings.

The High Renaissance:

Definition: From 1480 to 1520, while Rome was the new cultural center of the Italian Renaissance, da Vinci, Raphael, and Michelangelo dominated this era. It was about the individualistic forms of creative expression.

Leonardo da Vinci:

Famous: From 1452 to 1519, he was the shift from Early Renaissance to High Renaissance. He studied everything and dissected human bodies just to understand nature. He wanted to go past realism and to spread the idea of realistic portrayal to an ideal form. Da Vinci painted the “Last Supper” where he wanted to show a person’s character and inner nature by gestures and movement in this fresco.

Raphael:

Famous: He lived from 1483 to 1520, and at 25 years old he was already one of Italy’s best painters. He was known for his madonnas that highlighted great beauty. Also, he is famous for his frescoes in the Vatican Palace and the “School of Athens”. That was about balance, harmony, and order-mainly what antiquity art was about.

Michelangelo:

Famous: From 1475 to 1564, he was a painter, architect, and sculptor and was influenced by Neo-Platonism. He painted the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel and showed the glory of the human body and how we are similar to God. Also, his “David”, was a 14-foot high statue made from marble that glorified the human body and human power. It was a symbol of the Renaissance.

The Northern Renaissance:

Definition: The Northerners were focused on detail as opposed to proportion, so they highlighted books and panel paintings for altars.

Jan van Eyck:

Famous: Was the first to use oil paint that allowed him to use multiple colors and make fine details. In his “Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride” he painted stunning details, but his perspective was off. This is to be said about all northern painters and their talents. Also, they focus on emotional intensity of religious feelings too.

Albrecht Durer:

Famous: He lived from 1471 to 1528 in Nuremberg and was greatly influenced by the Italians perspective. In his “Adoration of the Magi” he tied in perspective and proportion with detail in a harmonious way, to show the standard of ideal beauty by carefully studying the human form.

Guillaume Dufay:

Famous: He was attracted by the dukes of Burgundy and was probably the most important composer in his era. From northern France from 1400 to 1474, he studied in Italy, so for his pieces he tied in Medieval music and with Renaissance’s style. He used the secular tunes to replace the Gregorian Chants in Mass. The main secular music that showed it was not only about god was called madrigal.

The European State in the Renaissance:

“New Monarchies”:

Importance: In the 1450s people tried to reestablish the central power of the monarchies, especially in France, England, and Spain. The western monarchs were successful while the central and eastern had limited power and could not gain any authority.

Taille:

Definition: Made by the Estates-General for the French King Charles VII, it was an annual direct tax on any land or property. If you lost control of the money then the parliament’s power lessened.

King Louis XI:

Famous: The making of a French territorial state was possible by the devious “Spider”. The taille allowed him to gain income, but the independent nobles were a threat. Louis then took control of Burgundy, Anjou, Maine, Bar, and Provence and set up a base for a strong French Monarchy.

The War of the Roses:

Importance: In the 1450s, a war broke out between the duke of Lancaster (red rose) against the ducal of York (white rose). Finally in 1485, Henry Tudor, duke of Richmond, defeated the last York king and established the Tudor dynasty.

Henry VII:

Famous: The first Tudor king tried to end internal arguments, banned nobles from having armies, and the Court of the Star Chamber which allowed his nobles to arrest and kill anyone without a reason or evidence. He gained income from judicial fees and by avoiding wars and loans from the Parliament. With his gained respect from the citizens, he created a successful government that illuminated monarchies.

Isabella and Ferdinand:

Famous: The Iberian kingdoms (Portugal, Navarre, Aragon, Castile, and Granada-Muslims) were united when they married and they got a professional army, control of the Catholic Church and their own parliaments and customs.

The Inquisition:

Definition: Ferdinand and Isabella wanted religious uniformity so they persecuted all the Muslims and Jews. Most Jews transferred to Christianity, but doubting if they were true Christians, they had the Pope make the Inquisition in 1487 under royal control to verify the beliefs of some people.

The Habsburgs:

Famous: After 1438 the Holy Roman Empire was still under the Habsburgs control, because they were successful through dynastic marriages.

Ottoman Turks:

Famous: The Byzantine Empire was a buffer between the Muslim Middle East and the Latin West but the Constantinople Sack in 1204 made it hard to come back into power. So the Turks took control quickly of the Asia Minor, Byzantine Empire, Seljuk Turks, Balkans, Serbians, Bosnia, and Albania. They moved towards Europe and made an enemy.

Constantinople: (1453)

Importance: There was a sack of Constantinople in 1204 and the Byzantine Empire was never put back together because of the Turks.

John Wyclif:

Famous: An Oxford theologian who hated clerical corruption, led an attack on papal authority and medieval Christian beliefs. He wanted the popes to be rid of and the Bible translated for all to read. His followers were called Lollards.

Jon Hus:

Famous: Leader of Czech reformers, a chancellor at the university of Prague, he wanted to eliminate worldliness and corruption of the clergy and attacked the power of the papacy within the church. He was allowed to have a court hearing but instead was arrested and condemned and burned.

Pope Pius II:

Famous: He issued the papal bull Execrabilis to condemn appeals to a council over the head of a pope as heretical.

The Renaissance Papacy:

Nepotism:

Definition: Since Popes can’t have kids, they use they’re nephews to carry on the trend.

Corruption:

Definition: Dishonesty, immoral, crime, etc.

Ch.13 ID Notes:

Christian (northern) Humanists: major goal was reform Christianity. Focused on early Christianity, discovered simple religion. Had a reform program. Believed through education in classical, especially Christian, antiquity, they could reform Church and society. Believed in education, supported schools.

Desiderius Erasmus: Most influential Christian humanist. Born in Holland and educated. Said Christianity should be the philosophy leading daily life. Emphasized inner piety and de-emphasized external forms of religion. He wanted to return to the simplicity of the early Church. Published Greek and a new Latin version of the Bible. Prepare the way for the Reformation. “Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched.”

The Praise of Folly: Erasmus’s humorous yet effective criticism of corrupt practices in society specifically, the clergy.

Thomas More: Son of a lawyer, had a good education. Interested in both Latin and Greek. He became lord chancellor of England. Good friends with Erasmus, and a devout Christian. Willingly gave up his life opposing England’s break with the Roman Catholic Church.

Utopia: Book written in 1516 by Thomas More. His account of the idealistic life and institutions of a community. (Utopia is Greek for “nowhere”) He presented a new social system in which cooperation and reason replaced power and fame as the proper motivating agents for human society. Communal ownership vs. private property, and people worked 9 hrs a day. 

Pluralism: the practice of holding several church offices simultaneously. This led to officeholders ignoring their duties and hiring unqualified underlings. This was another factor that spurred people to reform the Church.

Martin Luther: Deeply religious man, who split the Church, destroying religious unity of western Christendom. Mastered the liberal arts, then studied law. He than entered the monastic order of the Augustinian Hermits in Erfurt. The major focus was assurance of salvation.

Confession: gave the opportunity to have one’s sins forgiven. A Catholic’s chief means of receiving God’s grace. Luther confessed for hours, but was always doubtful.

Justification: the act by which a person is made deserving of salvation. Justification by faith in the Bible as the sole authority in religious affairs were the twin pillars of the Protestant Reformation. indulgences: Luther’s involvement in the indulgence controversy propelled him to open confrontation with church officials. The Church was selling indulgences, which greatly distressed Luther. He believed that those who relied on the pieces of paper to assure salvation were guaranteeing eternal damnation instead.

the 95 Theses: Luther issued them after the sale of indulgences. Written in Latin, but translated to German. Thousands of copies were printed and dissatisfaction with the church grew. Beginning of Reformation. the Edict of Worms: Luther was made an outlaw within the empire. Emperor Charles V was outraged at Luther and wanted him to give in, but he refused. Luther was to be captured ad delivered to the emperor, but instead he went into hiding for nearly a year. the Peasant War: In the mid 1520s, the peasants were fed up with social inequality and decided to rebel. The looked to Martin Luther for support. Luther did not support their efforts, instead he supported the rulers. Luther was dependant on state authorities for growth and maintenance on his reformed church.

the Peace of Augsburg: Peace in Holy Roman Empire. Agree to split up land between Lutheran and Catholics. Charles V makes peace with the Schmalkaldic League. Augsburg Confession accepted.

Charles V: ruled immense empire. Politically, he wanted to maintain his dynasty’s control over his enormous empire. Religiously, he wanted to preserve the unity of the Christian faith in his empire. ‘he had many problems and was very distracted. This helped Luther’s movement grow. Transubstantiation: doctrine of Roman Catholic Church that communion of bread and wine is miraculously changed into the body and blood in Jesus.

Consubstantiation: the bread and wine are not actually the body and blood, but spiritually are Jesus. This was a belief of Lutherans.

Ulrich Zwingli: Lived in Switzerland. Well educated, strongly influenced by Christian humanism. Became a cathedral priest in the Great Minster of Zurich. Through his preaching there, he began the Reformation in Switzerland. Led to a public disputation or debate in the town hall.

the Lord’s Supper: caused disagreement between Swiss and German leaders at the conference at Marburg. Zwingli believed that it was symbolic, not literal. It was inlay a meal of remembrance. Luther insisted that there was a real presence of Jesus.

Munster: in Germany near the Dutch border. It was under control of the Anabaptists for a period of time in the 1530s. It was a haven for Anabaptists and they thought it was going to be New Jerusalem. A group of Catholics and Lutherans banned together and took control of the city. Anabaptists: Anabaptists came from lower class peasants that were not doing do well economically. They believed that the true Christina Church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone spiritual rebirth and had been baptized into the church again as adults. All believers were considered equal. Believed in complete separation of church and state. Not well liked by other members of society.

King Henry VIII: Initiated the English Reformation. He wanted to divorce his wife, and the pope would not let him. His new advisor became Thomas Cranmer, who became the archbishop of Canterbury. He was a secret Protestant. He convinced King Henry to obtain and annulment of the marriage and essentially abolish papal authority in England.

Act of Supremacy: Passed by Parliament in 1534. It completed the break of the Catholic Church. The English monarch now controlled the church in all matters of doctrine, clergy appointments, and discipline. Queen Mary: A Catholic who intended to restore England to the Roman Catholic fold. She faced a lot of opposition. She married Philip II, son of Charles V and future king of Spain. She was not very successful and did not achieve what she intended. England became more Protestant during her reign.

John Calvin/Calvinism: Calvin was a second generation of protestant reformers. Influenced by Luther. Born in France, then went to Switzerland. Institutes of Christian Religion. He was very convince by the inner guidance of God. Justification by faith alone was how to achieve salvation. Predestination

Predestination: Calvinist belief that God had predestined for some to be saved (the elect) and others to be damned (the reprobate). Things that might indicate salvation: open profession of faith, a “decent and godly life,” and participation in the sacraments of baptism and communion.

Women: A wife was expected to be obedient to her husband. Her other important duty was to bear children. To Protestants, this was a very important concept in the divine plan. Being part of a family was really a women’s only option for a life.

Marriage: Marriage was encouraged and family life became much more important. Celibacy was no longer a holy thing. Family was the center of human life and there was a new stress on mutual love between a man and a woman.

Education: set up schools for a wide audience. The Protestants needed to create a population of believers that could read the Bible. They combined humanist ideas of liberal arts and Greek and Latin with religious instruction. Schools were paid for by the public.

Popular Culture: saints were eliminated, which ended many religious holy days and changed a community’s sense of time. They were replaced with individual private prayer, family worship, and collective prayer and worship at the same time each week on Sunday. Protestant Reformers tried to eliminate customary forms of entertainment such as drinking in taverns, dramatic performances, and dancing, and giving presents to children on holy days. However, taverns were an important part of social life and could not be eliminated.

Jesuits: the society of Jesus. Became chief instrument of Catholic Reformation. Founded by Spanish Ignatius of Loyola. Had principles of obedience to the papacy, strict hierarchy, use of education to achieve goals, and a dedication to engage in a “conflict for God.” They established highly disciplined schools. They went to Asia to convert them to Christianity. They fought Protestantism and won back Poland.

St. Ignatius: Founded the society of Jesus, or the Jesuits. Had a military career, but was injured. He decided to submit his will to the will of the church. He wrote The Spiritual Exercises. Gathered a small group of followers and formed the Jesuits.

The Council of Trent: Pope Paul III called it to resolve religious differences caused by the Protestant revolution. Met in three major sessions between 1545 and 1563. Catholics hoped to compromise and for the Protestants to return to the church, the final doctrine degrees of the councils reaffirmed traditional Catholic beliefs in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Only the Church could interpret scripture, both faith and good works were necessary for salvation. Seven sacraments, transubstantiation, clergical celibacy.

Huguenots: Calvinists from France. About 50 percent of nobility was Huguenot. About 10 percent of the total population was Huguenot.

ultra-Catholics: extreme Catholic party. Was very opposed to the Huguenots and led by the Guise family. They were unwilling to make compromises. Had lots of powers and were able to fund armies and were aligned with the Jesuits.

French Wars of Religion: Catholics vs. Huguenots. What’s more important, politics or religion? Catherine de’ Medici became in charge of France. Wanted to diffuse tension and marry her daughter, sister of the king, to Henry of Navarre, who was Protestant. St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, Calvinists killed at the wedding. War of three henrys. Henry duke of Guise vs. King Henry III and Henry of Navarre. Edict of Nantes: acknowledged Catholicism as the official religion of France but guaranteed the Huguenots the right to worship in selected places in every district and fortify towns for their protection. Recognized political rights of the minority Protestant group and created the concept of religious tolerance. Out of political necessity.

Philip II: He was a Catholic King. His was to make Spain a world power. Expanded power over nobility and bankrupted the nation. Battle of Lepanto 1571- defeated the Ottomans(Muslim). Biggest enemy was England b/c they were Protestant.

Union of Utrecht: 7 northern Dutch speaking states that were organized by William of Orange to oppose the Spanish. Divided the Netherlands religiously. They were Protestant. The southern provinces remained Catholic and with Spain. Queen Elizabeth: Queen of England, leader of a very powerful Protestant nation. Religious policy was based on moderation and compromise.

Puritans: English Calvinists. Wanted to remove any trace of Catholicism from the Church of England.

the Spanish Armada: Fleet of Spanish ships that intended to take over Queen Elizabeth of England but it was destroyed in a storm.

Chapter 14 ID Notes:
New World Expansion, Europe and the New World

Motives for Expansion: “God (religious), Glory (power), and Gold (economics)”

God: religious movement inspired by Juniperro Serra, spread of Christianity. A way to spread Catholicism over Protestantism. Prince Henry the Navigator and Hernán Cortes started with religious motives.

Glory: desire to create more powerful nation states. **fame, glory and curiosity that inspired exploration. To discover and claim Christian Kingdoms. Being granted eternal praise and power above others.

Gold: Inspired by Marco Polo of the 13th c. and newly blocked trade routes. Explorers sought new ways to Asia, spice trade, gold, and precious commodities. **everyone wants to be rich!

Basic Explorers: Portuguese empire- Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomeu Dias, Vasco da Gama, Alfonso Albuquerque. Spanish Empire- Christopher Columbus, Pedro Cabral, Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Ferdinand Magellan. (SEE POWEPOINT SLIDES!!!)

Conquistadors: Hernán Cortes takes the Aztec’s at Tenochtitlan with 550 soldiers--1519-29; Population declined from 11 million in 1519 to 6.5 million in 1540. Francisco Pizarro easily conquered the Inca Empire in South America by 1535.

Systems of Administration: Requerimiento- 1510--justified Spanish occupation of the New World. Encomienda- quasi slave system. Conquerors could force natives to work and pay taxes. Supposed protection and pay rarely happened. Religions instruction did sometimes.

Bartoleme de Las Casas: does not like conquistadors; protested and abolished encomienda system and replaced it with hacienda in 1542.

Middle Passage: the journey of slaves from Africa to the Americas as the middle leg of the triangular trade. 10 million slaves transported back and forth; 95% died and only 5% lived. **SMALL POX! Slave trade started many wars in Africa. Europe gets many new imports; tomatoes, potatoes, squash.

Southeast Asia: Dutch supplanted Portuguese in Malacca, the Moluccas, and the rest of Indonesia; Dutch East India Co.

India: Mughal Empire established. English and Dutch arrived at Portuguese. French had a limited presence. British East India Co. achieved dominance in Calcutta after the Battle of Plassey (1757)--British East India Co. could collect taxes around Calcutta, etc.

Economic Revolution: Price inflation; value of money goes down while prices go up. A lot of people with money; traders and merchants are very successful, lower standard of living, from local to national (larger nation state system), new industries, mining, ship building, weaponry.

Entrepreneurs: Medici’s and Jacob Fugger; invests wisely in minerals by making a deal with Charles V to mine, makes a lot of money.

Joint-Stock Companies: split the profits, Netherlands (Dutch-East India stock company) **beginning of capitalism, Bank of Amsterdam-first national bank. Dutch started Capitalism.

Mercantilism: finite amount of wealth; bring as much wealth to your country as possible (sell more than you buy and buy only from your own country). Trading=high taxes, favorable balance of trade (exports>imports).

China and Japan: Qing Dynasty limited foreign influence--Canton from October to March only. Japan kept foreigners at bay until the 1850s. Some Catholic influence (Francis Xavier). Dutch had limited trade with Japan. **limited European influence.

Chapter 15 ID Notes:
Social Crisis, War, and Rebellion

Witchcraft: Started during mid 1500s when another little ice age caused harvests to fail, creating famine. These problems led to social tensions and “witches” were blamed. Trials were held in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany, parts of France and Low Countries, and New England. Was around for a while but was recently associated with the idea that it was sinister and dangerous when the medieval church connected them with the devil. Caused by religion (affected Protestant areas and belief in devil) and social (old women and poor were blamed). It was sexist. Ended when gov’t stabilized and people questioned old religious beliefs in 18th century.

the Thirty-Years War: (1618-1648) “last of the religious wars” started religious now political. Religious Divisions: 1608 Protestant Union vs. the Catholic League. Political Divisions: Hapsburgs wanted to regain strength at the expense of Protestant princes. Princes wary of centralization. Outside influences: Catholic France opposed a strong HRE, even though it was also Catholic (all to gain power! France restarted the war). Denmark and Sweden would support the Protestants.

Background: protestant rebellion against Catholic King. First religious, w/ militant Catholicism vs. militant Calvinism, but turned secular and dynastic-nationalist. Was in Germanic lands of HRE. Maybe between Bourbon dynasty (France) and Habsburg dynasty (Spain) and HRE. **RESULT: pope gets no influence-secular! HRE has NO power b/c of independent gov’t. present day Germany gets destroyed.

Results of TYW: Germany devastated--economy, farmland, population, etc. 1/3 of Germans died. Mouth of the Rhine went to the Dutch, so Germany’s economic growth is further hampered. Germany divided, thus weak. Won’t be united for two hundred years. HRE exists in name only. France emerges as the leader of the continent.

Protestant Union=Calvinist, league of German Protestant states, Elector Palatine Frederick IV vs.

Catholic League=German states, Duke Maximillian of Bavaria (S. Germany). Began b/c Habsburg (w/ Spain) wanted a consolidated authority in HRE but princes (w/ France and S. enemies) objected and wanted “German liberties”, constitutional rights, and individual rulers.

Bohemian Phase: (1618-1625) Noble Bohemian Estates accepted the Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand as king but regretted it b/c they were Calvinist and he wanted to reinforce Catholicism and strengthen royal power. Protestant nobles rebelled by defenestrating Habsburg ambassadors in Prague—seat of Bohemian gov’t. Rebels got Bohemia and rid of Ferdinand, replacing him w/ Protestant Palatinate Elector Frederick V (Protestant Union). But Ferdinand, the HRE emperor, was put back by Catholic League. Spain got Palatinate for trade and Duke Max got the rest. Protestant land was taken and Catholicism was sole religion.

The Danish Phase: (1625-1629) King Christian IV of Denmark, a Lutheran.
SEE POWERPOINT NOTES!!!!!

The Peace of Westphalia: Ended the TYW in Germany during the Franco-Swedish Phase after 5 years of protracted negotiations in 1648. Said all German states, even Calvinists, could choose own religion. Land divided, each HRE state was now independent b/c got own foreign policy. Habsburg emperor now a figurehead in HRE. Religion and politics separate, Pope ignored in Westphalia.
1. Hundreds of diplomats meet in Westphalia, even the Pope.
2. Pope is ignored, emphasizing the secularization of European politics/diplomacy.
3. Each of the 300 German states has right to conduct its own foreign policy--essentially independent.
4. Religion to be decided by ruler; Calvinism OK.
5. Dutch Republic’s independence and Switzerland’s neutrality accepted.
6. France and Sweden left with a little extra land.

Standing armies: Made by King of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus. Played offensively, w/ enlisted musketeers and pikemen. Fired guns at once, then charged with swords. Men were highly trained at military schools. Weapons more advanced and navy ships were stronger/bigger/powerful. End of undisciplined mercenary forces.

Gustavus Adolphus: (1611-1632) King of Sweden. Revived Sweden and turned in into a great Baltic power. Devout Lutheran. Led army to central Germany where he fought Wallenstein (appointed by Emperor Ferdinand) in Battle of Lutzen. Swedes won but Adolphus killed. Wallenstein killed by Ferdinand. Swedes defeated by imperial army, making S. Germany Catholic. Ferdinand wanted to be friends w/ German princes and annulled the Edict of Restitution (Calvinism banned and Catholicism restored). But failed.

The Practice of Absolutism: Western Europe

Hapsburg: The family established a hereditary monarchy in Austria in 1282 and secured the title of the HRE from 1452. Austrian and Spanish branches were created when Charles divided the territories between his son Phillip II and his brother Ferdinand; the Habsburgs ruled Spain from 1504-1700, while in Austria the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918.

Bishop Jacques Bossuet: (1627-1704) French theologian and court preacher. Wrote Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture, about how gov’t used holy orders so society was organized. Divine-right monarchy

absolutism: Type of gov’t where the sovereign (supreme) power was held by a monarch who claimed he was divine right. Gap with theory and practice of absolutism. Monarch’s absolute power was limited by practical realities.
1. Centralized political power
2. Pacified nobility
3. Increased revenue
4. New army of conscripts.

divine right monarchy: Divine-right monarchy—god chose kings and their authority was absolute (unrestricted power). Kings are only responsible to God, not Parliament.

Cardinal Richelieu: Louis XIII’s chief minister (1624-1642) made policies that made a stronger monarchy in France. Accomplished by strengthening royal authority by eliminating the private armies and fortified cities of the Huguenots and crushing aristocratic ideas. **Had spies find out noblemen plots and then crushed/killed them. Financially, he sent intendants who grew strong but when the gov’t wanted to reform the beneficiary and corrupt system people were mad. Raised tailles (annual tax on land) and crown lands were mortgaged. French debt decreased???? NOBLES OF THE ROBE-bought their title.

Mazarin: Richelieu’s trained successor ruled after Louis XIII and Richelieu died, w/ 4 yr old Louis XIV and wife Anne of Austria unfit. Italian who came to France as a papal legate (member of clergy). Was naturalized. The nobles revolted, Fronde, and allied w/ Parlement of Paris—important court in France w/ power to make legal choices of ½ kingdom and made up of nobles of the robe (service nobility of lawyers). Both angry at the taxes of TYW.

King Louis XIV: “Sun King” Wanted to be a strong ruler and make France glorified/powerful. Set standard for monarchies/aristocracies. Towns, provinces, and nobles all had their own privileges, power, authority, regional courts, local Estates, and laws. He restructured the central policymaking form b/c it was part of his own court and household. Nobles and princes were a threat but were eliminated them from the royal council and told to watch over court life. Formulated foreign policy, making of war and peace, enforcing secular power of the crown against religious authority, and taxing to fund this. Nobles, princes, etc were hard to control and were bribed. They could shut down his policies if they hated it. Didn’t let French Huguenots (Protestants) practice their faith in largely Catholic France.

Versailles: Royal court held here. Personal household of king. Location of central gov’t machinery. A lot of $$$ and workers put time into turning this hunting lodge to a château in 1688. Reception hall for state affairs. Office building for king’s gov’t. Home to many royal officials/aristocratic courtiers. Symbol of absolutism. Home to high nobility/royal princes to keep them busy in court life. No privacy. Reinstalled fun and entertainment.

Intendants: 17th century royal officials in France that were sent to provinces to execute the orders of the central gov’t. Problems grew w/ provincial governors, but they always won.

Fronde: Nobles of the robe (service nobility of lawyers) led 1st Fronde (1648-49) in Paris and ended in compromise. 2nd Fronde in 1650 was led by nobles of the sword (ancestors of medieval nobles) in the overthrowing of Mazarin. B/c wanted to secure positions and increase their own power. Ended in 1652 when nobles fought themselves. Everyone realized that stability was possible through the crown.

Louis XIV’s Wars: Due to increase in royal power, ensure domination of the Bourbon dynasty over European affairs, and the desire for military success. In 1667, he invaded the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comte, but the Triple Alliance (Dutch, English, Swedes) ended it in 1668. In 1672, the Dutch were isolated. France invaded the United Provinces. But Brandenburg, Spain, and HRE made Louis end the Dutch war by peace at Nimwegen in 1678. Then fought the weak HRE. Alsace and Lorraine, then Strasbourg, led to widespread protest and formation of the League of Augsburg in Spain, HRE, U. Provinces, Sweden, and England. This was 3rd war, War of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697). Brought economic depression/famine. Treaty of Ryswick forced him to give up his conquests but keep Strasbourg and Alsace. 4th war=War of the Spanish succession (1702-13). Childless Habsburg Charles II left Spain to Phillip V of Spain (Louis’s grandson). People thought Spain and France were united as Spanish Bourbon dynasty. New coalition (England, U. Provinces, Habsburg Austria, German) formed to prevent Bourbon dominance. Ended by Peace of Utrecht.

Edict of Fontainebleau: October 1685. Destruction of Huguenot churches and closing Protestant schools. Many left to England, United Provinces, and German states. Their leaving weakened French economy and strengthened the states they moved to.

War of Spanish Succession: The last of Louis’s wars (a big one); Spanish crown to Louis’s grandson. Others worry about Bourbon domination of Europe (Spain and France united together as the Grand Alliance), 11 years of war. Peace of Utrecht confirmed Philip V (Louis’s grandson) as the king of Spain. The thrones of Spain and France would remain separate. England got French territories in America and Gibraltar, Spain was a mess, losing the Netherlands and its pride.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert: (1619-1683) The controller of general finances. Wanted to increase the wealth and power of France through general support to mercantilism, which stressed gov’t rules of economic activities to benefit the state. Decrease imports, increase exports by making things nicer. For communication of progress he built roads and canals. Raised tariffs on foreign manufactured goods and built a merchant marine to decrease imports. Yet, his policies were avoided, high tariffs brought foreign retaliation. The more money brought in, the faster it went. Peasants taxed heavily.

Peace of Utrecht: 1713. Ended the War of the Spanish Succession. Made Phillip V a Spanish ruler and started the Spanish Bourbon dynasty. Made Spanish and French thrones separate. Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia got Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples. England really won Gibraltar, French possessions in USA of Newfoundland, Hudson’s Bay Territory, and Nova Scotia.

Absolutism in Central, Eastern, and Northern Europe

Frederick William the Great Elector: (1640-88) Founder of Prussia. Made powerful when he increased the size and efficiency of the army, raised taxes with General War Commissariat pay for army (Commissariat turned to an agency for civil government), and made an efficient bureaucracy officials were Prussian landed aristocracy, the Junkers, who also were officers in the army—to collect them, and gained support of the landed aristocracy (if he could rule by himself then the nobles had power over their peasants, weren’t taxed, and awarded with the highest ranks in the army and the Commissariat). He reinforced serfdom. His policies were mercantilist, build roads/canals through high tariffs, and monopolies for manufacturers to stimulate domestic industry. Later rulers added more territory. Son Frederick III was the king in Prussia and turned from Elector Freddy III to King Freddy I.

the Hohenzollerns: Dynasty in Brandenburg-Prussia (NE Germany). Got Rhine valley and E. Prussia (duchy of Prussia). Hohenzollerns ruler of these western, central, and eastern Germany connected them.

Treaty of Karlowitz: Brought upon Leopold I who was challenged by Ottomans, the Ottomans surrounded Vienna and the Austrians finally defeated them in 1687. In 1699, Austria then controlled Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, and Slovenia=Austrian Empire in SE Europe.

the Romanovs: A resurgence of aristocratic power when there was no ruler (anarchy)—called the Time of Troubles. It ended when Zemsky Sobor, or national assembly, chose Michael Romanov (1613-45) as the new tsar (person w/ great authority) beginning a dynasty that lasted until 1917.

Russian Serfdom: Muscovite society was about social ranking. Top was tsar who was a religious autocratic ruler. The upper class bound their peasants to land b/c the abundance of land and shortage of peasants made serfdom desirable. Townspeople were controlled and not allowed to do anything w/o gov’t permission/in social rank. Merchant/peasant revolts and schism in the Russian Orthodox Church made unsettled conditions.

Orthodox Church: Due to merchants/peasants revolts b/c of the reinforced serfdom policies, the Russian Orthodox Church led to a division of strongly opposed parties caused by beliefs (schism).

Peter the Great: 6’9”. Wanted to westernize Russia, especially technical skills. He wanted a strong army/navy to make Russia a great power. He was a tsar. He liked cruel punishment, low humor, and clean-shaven beards—showed the “class” of westernizing. Made the 1st Russian navy. Reorganized the central gov’t along W. lines.

Great Northern War:

Limited Monarchy and Republics

the Stuarts: After Queen Elizabeth died in 1603, the Tudor dynasty fell and the Stuart dynasty succeeded through Elizabeth’s cousin, King James VI of Scotland (son of Mary, Queen of Scotland). He was then called King James I once he was king of England from (1603-1625).

James I: Queen Elizabeth of England’s cousin who was known as King James VI of Scotland but for the Stuart dynasty he became King James I of England (1603-1625). He knew little about English customs and followed the divine right of kings. So he was against Parliament and their idea of having a “balanced polity” with the monarchs. Puritans wanted James to end the Episcopal system—where the bishop played the biggest administrative role, and replace it with Presbyterians—a Scottish Calvinist church organization in Geneva where ministers/elders (presbyters) played governing roles. The Puritans were then made up of the gentry—wealthy landowners below the level of nobility, forming a part of the House of Commerce (lower house of Parliament) and had the role of justice of peace and sheriffs. James refused because he realized that the Anglican Church was the most monarchical because the crown elected the bishops.

Puritans: Protestants in the Anglican Church inspired by Calvinist theology.

English Civil War: (1642-1646) In the 1st phase Parliament won b/c the New Model Army was born—made of extreme Puritans, or Independents, who thought they were fighting for God. Cromwell was a group leader. Also won b/c captured King Charles I in 1646. Presbyterian churches marched and he negotiated with Scotland. Cromwell was upset so there was a second civil war where the monarchies were temporarily stopped and Cromwell was beheaded.

Charles I: King James I of England’s son, from (1625-1649). The Petition of Right was accepted but her reneged it b/c it limited his power. So he “banned” Parliament and ruled individually for 10 years by collecting ship money/taxes. He called Parliament back after the policies of Laud failed and the Scots revolted. Now the king’s power was limited and Parliament was enforced.

Oliver Cromwell: Group leader of the New World Army/Independents. He was in the Civil War in England for Presbyterians and against the radical Independents. Charles tried to flee and get help from the Scots but Cromwell captured him and won. Charles was beheaded and the monarchy in England was destroyed. Then the Rump Parliament ended monarchies and the House of Lords and called England republic. Then a Scottish uprising and hatred from the Irish grew.

Levellers: Advocated for freedom of speech, religious toleration, and a democratic republic, arguing for the right to vote for all male householders over 21. Also called for annual Parliaments where women’s rights and gov’t programs for poor were brought up. Then Cromwell destroyed radicals, the Rump Parliament, and the king. The Instrument of Gov’t was England’s 1st and only constitution with the Lord Protector spot filled by Cromwell. He then disbanded this Parliament b/c of religious diff. and split England into 11 regions with a military governor. 10% land tax on former Royalists.

the Glorious Revolution:

Thomas Hobbes: (1588-1679) who lived during the England Civil War, was known for the state’s claim to absolute authority over his subjects, seen in the Leviathan. He said before society, human life was poor and uncivilized. Humans were guided not by reason and moral ideas but by animalistic instincts and a desire for self-preservation. To save themselves from killing everybody, they formed a commonwealth—it gave power to the sovereignty authority or a single ruler who was an executor, legislator, and judge. This absolute ruler had unlimited power and citizens may not rebel.

John Locke: (1632-1704) He wrote Two Treatises of Gov’t. It started w/ same idea of as Locke, about nature before humans was organized socially. But he thought that humans lived in a state of equality and freedom than war. People had rights to life, liberty, and property, but it’s hard to protect these rights. So the gov’t would protect people’s rights if the people act reasonably, but if a monarch acts w/o consent then the people can form a new gov’t. Not an advocate for political democracy but supported constitutional gov’t, the rule of law, and protection of rights.

The Flourishing European Culture

Mannerism: distorted the rules of proportion, elongated figures, conveyed a sense of suffering, strong emotional atmosphere filled with anxiety and confusion. Spread from Italy to other parts of Europe. Reached its height with “El Greco.”

El Greco: Domenikos Theotocopoulos; (Greek) from Crete but studied in Venice and Rome then moved to Spain. Became the church painter in Toledo; portrayed unusual shades of yellow and green with a grey background; desire to create a world of intense emotion. Laocoon, Hellenistic sculpture and painting. Assumption of the Virgin

Baroque: began in Italy in late sixteenth century then spread to the rest of Europe; embraced by the CATHOLIC reform movement (Hapsburgs). Brought together classical ideals of Renaissance art with the spiritual feelings of the 16th century religious revival; use dramatic effects to create intense emotions. Reflected the search for power; churches and palaces were magnificent and richly detailed; KINGS AND PRINCES WANTED OTHER KINGS AND PRINCES TO BE AWARE AND IN AWE OF THEIR POWER (power shown by art)

Bernini (1598-1680): greatest figure of Baroque art; Italian architect and sculptor. Completed Saint Peter’s Basilica in the Vatican. **key themes: action, exuberance, profusion, and dramatic effects. The Ecstasy of Saint Theresa created for Cornaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome (sought to convey Theresa’s description of her experience when and angel pierced her heart with a golden arrow)

Gentileschi (1593-1653): painted a series of pictures portraying scenes from the lives of courageous Old Testament Women. First woman elected in the Florentine Academy of Design. Judith Beheading Holofernes.

French Classicism: rejected Baroque styles but still continued the portrayal of noble subjects; classical values of the High Renaissance. Emphasis on clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmony of design. Triumph in French Classicism represented the shift from chaos to order.

Dutch Realism: realistic portrayal of secular everyday life

Rembrandt Van Rijn: famous Dutch realist painter (1606-1669). Syndics of the Cloth Guild; started with secular paintings but later shifted to painting depicted scenes from biblical tales.

William Shakespeare: from Stratford-upon-Avon; was a “complete man of the theater.” Best known for writing plays but was also an actor and shareholder in the Lord Chamberlain’s Company. Recognized as a universal genius; In Praise of England reflected the patriotic enthusiasm of the English in the Elizabethan era, Richard II

Lope de Vega: (1562-1635) middle class background. Prolific writer, one third of his fifteen hundred plays survive. **characteristics: witty, charming, action packed and realistic. Wrote plays to please his audience, more cynical than Shakespeare.

Racine: (1639-1699) French dramatist, followed both Greek and Roman sources. Focused on conflicts between love and honor or inclination and duty that characterized and revealed the tragic dimensions of life.

Moliere: (1622-1673) enjoyed the favor of the French Court, had the patronage of Louis XIV. Wrote produced and acted in a series of comedies that often satirized that religious and social world of his time.
Chapter 16:
Toward a New Heaven and a New Earth: The Scientific Revolution and the Emergence of Modern Science

Background to the Scientific Revolution
Natural Philosophers preferred refined logical analysis to systematic observations of the natural world; abandoned old views and established new ones

Medieval scholars used writings of Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy to develop physics, medicine, and astronomy.

Artists desired to imitate nature so they had to closely observe nature; more artists began taking a “scientific” look at nature.

Literature during the Renaissance, the Greek writings were understood because of humanism. The writings of Galen, Ptolemy, Aristotle, Archimedes, Plato, and Pre-Socratics all had differing opinions, motivating people to find out who was right--leading to new scientific discoveries. Artists who focused on nature (environment/humans) and for perspective or correct anatomical proportions, these artists were also mathematicians.

Technological innovations and mathematics: technical problems required careful observation and accurate measurements. The subjects; machine and technology, increased in book sales. Technical innovations were enforced by practicality rather theories. Math was the key to navigation, military science, the nature of things, and geography, according to Plato. Math proved certainty. Secret to nature was unlocked by math.

Renaissance Magic: Seen as the intellectual elite. Hermetic magic fused with alchemical into a single intellectual framework. Thought that the world was a living, physical form of religion. Humans supposedly had magical religion in them. Cosmologists all liked Hermetic ideas and astrology and alchemy. Toward a New Heaven: A Revolution in Astronomy
Ptolemaic universe (geometric conception): greatest astronomer of antiquity; 2nd century A.D. Earth was the center of the universe; seen as a series of concentric spheres with a motionless earth in the center. Composed of earth, air, fire and water; the earth was always changing, spheres surrounding earth moved on circular orbits; most “perfect” movement (heavenly bodies).

Copernicus (heliocentric conception): Krakow, Poland; universities- Bologna and Padua. Came up with the theory that the universe was heliocentric (the sun was the center). Stated that the universe consisted of 8 spheres and a motionless sun; Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. **Sun “moved” because of a daily rotation of the earth on its axis and the journey around the sun each year. Does not reject Aristotle; challenges the role of humans and God in the universe. Martin Luther does not like Copernicus.

Brahe: Copenhagen; King Fredrick II. Built Uraniborg Castle. Observed the positions and movement of stars and planets; rejected the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic system but did not accept Copernicus’ theory that the earth moved. Imperial mathematician in Prague for Emperor Rudolf II.

Kepler: Brahe’s assistant, influenced by Michael Mastlin (Germany’s best known astronomer). Theology => mathematics and astronomy (Graz, Austria). Universe is constructed of geometric shapes. Published three laws of planetary motion; disproves Ptolemaic system and allows people to think in new ways.

Galileo: taught mathematics at Pisa => Padua, first European to make systematic observations of the heavens (new age in astronomy). Created a “spyglass” or a telescope allowing him to make create astronomic discoveries. In The Starry Messenger in 1610. He was appointed a spot as a court mathematician by the Grand Duke of Cosimo II. On motion he said that a uniform force on an object accelerated the speed rather than a consistent one. And he said inertia, or a body in motion stays in motion forever unless deflected by an external force.

the Roman Inquisition: or the Holy Office of the Catholic Church hated Copernicanism and told Galileo to stop using those theories. The church was against Copernicanism because it threatened the Scripture and the original idea of what the universe was about. In 1632 he made Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems: Ptolemaic and Copernican, written in Italian so available to the public and about Sagredo (a layman) and Salviati (for Copernicus). The Inquisition made him retract his teachings. Newton: This Englishman invented the calculus, or calculating rates of change, found the composition of light, and worked on the law of universal gravitation. He wrote Principia in 1686. He was the master of the royal mint and president of the Royal Society and knighted for this. He was interested in the occult and alchemy. In his Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy or Principia, was the last influential book written in Latin. It explained the universal law of gravitation; in detail the 3 laws of motion were 1. Every object keeps in state of rest or same motion in a straight line unless deflected by a force 2. The rate of change of motion of an object is proportional to the force acting on it 3. For every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction. His law on gravity said that planets didn’t go off straight lines but in elliptical orbits around the sun and that every object in the universe was attracted to everything with a force of gravity. His world-machine worked only in time, space, and motion, dominating the Western view until Einstein (concept of relativity). **Know the books of each figure

Advances in Medicine and Chemistry
Galen: A 2nd century Grecian who influenced medicinal ideas through anatomy, physiology, and disease. He used animals to dissect. For physiology, or the functioning of the body, he said there were 2 blood systems, one for muscles in the arteries (red) and digestion in the veins (dark red). For disease he said blood=warm/moist, phlegm=cold/moist, yellow bile=warm/dry, black bile=cold/dry. Treatments were through herbs but sometimes purging and bleeding, even if it’s harmful.

Paracelsus: or Phillppus Aureolus von Hohenheim (1493-1541) from Zurich renamed himself to the meaning of greater than the physician Celsus. Called city physician and professor of medicine. Never accepted in one town, kept moving. Hated Aristotle and Galen and attacked universities for their ideas. Wanted to make a new chemical philosophy based on understanding nature through observation and experiments. Said humans were small replicas (microcosm) of the big world (macrocosm). Said illness was because of chemical imbalances in organs and treated with chemicals that were given in the right amount of metals/minerals. He thought by giving the ill the same poison their sick with then they’d be cured. Called a homicidal physician.

Vesalius: (1514-1564) From Paris, where he discovered Galen’s text On Anatomical Procedures that led him to believe that research was needed to understand the human anatomy. He wrote On the Fabric of the Human Body, based on Paduan teaching on dissecting the body, full of illustrations. Corrected Galen’s statements.

William Harvey: (1578-1657) He wrote On the Motion of the Heart and Blood. He worked with meticulous observations and experiments, correcting the Greeks. Said the heart was the beginning of the continuous circulation of blood in the body.

Chemistry: Robert Boyle (1627-91) conducted controlled experiments, based on gases that led to Boyle’s law, or the volume of gas varies with the pressure exerted on it. Said matter is made of atoms, and later on chemical elements. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-94) invented the system to name chemical elements.

Women in the Origins of Modern Science
Margaret Cavendish: (1623-73) The duchess of Newcastle. She debated for science. Not a part of the Royal Society but went to meeting. She wrote Observations upon Experimental Philosophy and Grounds of Natural Philosophy. A scientific critic who criticized attempts to master nature.

Maria Merian: (1647-1717) An entomologist, or the study of plants and bugs, through illustrations. Went to the Dutch colony Suriname in S. America, leading to Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam about reproduction and development of bugs.

Maria Winkelman: (1670-1720) German astronomer educated by her dad. She was an assistant to her husband, Gottfried Kirch in Berlin at the Academy of Science. Rejected from the Berlin Academy because they were sexist. Discovered a comet.

querelles des femmes: Or arguments about women. The male opinion was that women were prone to bad behavior, easily swayed, and needed to be controlled. Women argued that they were self-sufficient and education was the key to women moving into the world. Science=illustrations of men or women anatomy was limited so research showed that women’s body structure was meant to be child bearers and the smaller skulls showed that men were meant to be superior. Proved women were inferior to men and nature proves they are simply domestic.

Toward a New Earth: Descartes, Rationalism, and a New View of Humankind
Descartes (continued in next section): (1596-1650) A French noble with a Jesuit education, he changed from the military to math and mechanics. Said the separation of mind and matter or absolute duality, or called Cartesian dualism. Only accepted philosophies based on reason. Began with the supposition that “I think, therefore, I am”. Also did rationalism. For the scientific method he emphasized deduction and mathematical logic.

Cartesian dualism: Descartes’ principle of the separation of mind and matter (and mind and body) that enabled scientists to view matter as something separate from themselves that could be investigated by reason.

Rationalism: A system of thought based on the belief that human reason and experience are the chief sources of knowledge.

The Scientific Method and the Spread of Scientific Knowledge
The scientific method: A method of seeking knowledge through inductive principles, using experiments and observations to develop generalizations. How something works, not why.

Francis Bacon: (1561-1626) Was a lawyer and lord chancellor who hated Copernicus and Kepler and didn’t get Galileo. He wrote The Great Instauration about how humans know about the natural world but their answers are wrong. He reformed the scientific method to be about observations and experiments. Wanted science to contribute to mechanical arts to help agriculture, industry, and trade to dominate nature. His empiricism, or the practice of relying on observation and experiments.

Spinoza: (1632-77) A philosopher from Amsterdam, yet excommunicated from the synagogue for rejecting Judaism. Influenced by Descartes, but didn’t agree with the separation of mind and matter and the separation of infinite God and the finite world of matter. He used pantheism (or monism), that God was the universe in his book Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner. We are all a part of God. Nature is not for use, but we are all a part of it. God is the universe.

Pascal: (1623-62) Was a French scientist who thought Christianity should independent of reason—people should join because the world of nature could never reveal God. Pascal’s Wager was his belief that God is sensible, because if you believe and there is no God, you are out nothing; if you don’t believe and there is a God, you’re in trouble. He invented a calculating machine and probability. He wrote Penses, where he wanted to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to their reason and emotions.

Chapter 17:
The Eighteenth Century: An Age of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment **cosmopolitan movement and French dominance
Reason: the Scientific Revolution (figuring things out – limitless potential to humans – new government ideas) led to the beginning of the Enlightenment, or “man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity” (German philosopher Immanuel Kant) Enlightenment motto: “Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!” **a movement of intellectuals who dared to know and were impressed by the accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution (liked the word reason); application of scientific method to understand life. Reason, natural law, hope, and progress.

Fontenelle: (1657-1757) secretary of the French Royal Academy if Science. No scientific experiments or discoveries, but had a deep knowledge of scientific work of the past and present. Wrote Plurality of Worlds and made science part of literature. Supported skepticism toward religion by portraying churches as enemies of science.

The Historical and Critical Dictionary: written by Pierre Bayle (1647-1706) were he demonstrated religious toleration and the benefit of maintaining the existence of many religions. He portrays the king as a sensual, treacherous, cruel, and evil man. Attacked traditional religious practices and heroes as well as 18th century philosophers. “Bible of the eighteenth century.”

“Noble savage”: plays important role in political work of some philosophies. When Cook founded Tahiti and other exotic places like Australia, he wrote about it in Travels. He said the natives were: natural man” and very content. The “noble savage” was a sign to the realization that there were other highly developed areas of the world that differ from Europe. This led to culture relativism and religious skepticism working together.

John Locke: gave the intellectual inspiration for the Enlightenment, influenced philosophers. Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding, every person was born with a tabula rasa (blank mind). Our knowledge is derived from our environment and reason no heredity and faith; people are molded by the environment and experienced through their senses from the surrounding world. Changed humankind and created a new society by changing environment and leading people to proper influences. With Newton, created a “brave new world” built on reason.

Montesquieu: (1689-1755) came from French nobility and received classical education. Wrote Persian Letters where he demonstrated the attack on traditional religion, the advocacy of religious toleration, the denunciation of slavery, and the use of reason to liberate human beings form their prejudices. Most famous work The Spirit of the Laws (treatise) was a comparative study of governments in which he attempted to apply the scientific method to the social and political arena to ascertain the “natural laws” that governed the social relationships of human beings. Three basic kinds of governments: 1. Republics; suitable for small states and based on citizen involvement 2. Monarchy (England); appropriate for middle–sized states and grounded in the ruling class’ adherence to law 3. Despotism; apt for large empires and dependent on fear to inspire obedience. **separation of powers: believed that England’s system provided the greatest freedom and security for a state. Wanted nobility of France to have an active role in running French government.

Voltaire: (1694-1778) from a middle-class family in Paris and received classical education. Wrote Philosophic Letters on the English that admired English life and its freedom of press, political freedom, and religious toleration. “thirty religions live together peacefully and happily.” Criticized royal absolutism and the lack of religious toleration and freedom of thought in France. **Treatise on Toleration: argued that religious toleration did not create problems for England and Holland and reminded governments that “all men are brothers under God” women are capable of all that men are. Deism was a religious outlook that suggested the existence of a mechanic (God) who had created the universe. Believed that God did not have direct involvement in the world he created, allowed it to run on its own natural laws. (God did not extend grace or answer prayers and Jesus is not divine).

Diderot: (1713-1784) son of skilled craftsman from eastern France. Said Christianity was fanatical and unreasonable. Materialistic conception of life: “this world is only a mass of molecules.” **wrote the Encyclopedia (28 volumes 20 years), or Classified Dictionary of Science, Arts, and Trades. Purpose was to change the general way of thinking; was used in philosophes’ crusade against the old French society. Attacked religious superstition and advocated toleration; program for social, legal, and political improvements leading to a more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, and reasonable society. Ideas further spread the Enlightenment.

David Hume: (1711-1776) Scottish philosopher that developed the “Science of Man;” enlightenment belief that Newton’s scientific methods could be used to discover natural laws of human life, “natural laws” governed human actions that laid the foundation for modern social science. Called “a pioneering social scientist” Treatise on Human Nature- an attempt to introduce the experimental method of reasoning into moral subjects; Hume argued that observation (examination of human life –> knowledge of human nature) and reflection lead to common sense, which created a “science of man.”

Adam Smith: (1723-1790) Scottish philosopher with best statement of laissez–faire (let people do as they choose). Inquiry to the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations (the Wealth of Nations) 3 basic principles of economics; attacked mercantilism (their use of tariffs to protect home industries). **Free trade, labor theory of value (gold, silver or soil are not source of a country’s wealth). State should not interfere with economic matters; gov’t has 3 functions: protect society from invasion, defend individuals from injustice & oppression, and keep up with public works. Emphasized economic liberty of an individual; laid foundation for economic liberalism.

Deism: (Voltaire) belief in God as the creator of the universe who, after setting it in motion, ceased to have any direct involvement in it and allowed it to run according to its own natural laws.

Rousseau: (1712-1778) born in Geneva, introduced to philosophy in Paris. Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind presents humans in a “happy” nature with no laws, no judges and total equality. Said government was cruel but necessary. The Social Contract attempts to harmonize individual liberty and governmental authority (an agreement on society being governed by its general will). Liberty is achieved through following what is best for all people, best for all=best for you. Parliament cannot be associated with the creation of laws (ultimate statement of democracy). Émile was Enlightenment’s most important work on education, that it should not restrict children’s natural instincts; sought a balance between heart and mind=Romanticism- emphasis on heart and sentiment. Viewed women naturally different from men.

Mary Astell: (1666-1731) in A Serious Proposal to the Ladies said that women needed to become more educated. Knew that men would oppose her. Some Reflections upon Marriage, argues for equality of the sexes in marriage (no absolute sovereignty in family) *why are all women born slaves?

Mary Wollstonecraft: (1759-1797) founder of modern European feminism. Vindication of the Rights of Woman points out contradictions in Enlightenment thinking. Saying women should obey men goes against the belief that the power of monarchs over their subjects is wrong. Said Enlightenment was based on reason being part of all human beings; if women had reason then they are entitled the same rights as men in education, economics, and political life.

Salons: a way of spreading ideas of the Enlightenment to the elites of European society. Philosophes were invited to elegant rooms in the houses of the wealthy where they were supposed to engage in conversation about ideas of the philosophes. Brought together writers and artists with aristocrats and gov’t official in France. Hosted by women; felt that this way they had a greater political influence on society. Reputation was made by what males the hostess could attract. Declined in French Revolution.

Geoffrin: (1699-1777) wealthy bourgeois widow, welcomed encylopedists in her salon and offered financial assistance to complete her work in private. Culture and Society in the Enlightenment
Rococo: An art form that emphasized detail, sweetness, leisure, lightness, complex compositions, and playfulness. Used wispy brush strokes and gold and red colors.

Johann Sebastian Bach: Composed who composed his Mass in B Minor the Saint Mathew’s Passion. He thought of music as a way to honor God.

George Frederick Handel: German born composer. Was secular in his ideas. He moved to England where he started composing; his most famous work was Messiah.

Franz Joseph Haydn: Known as the Master of the Symphony, he wrote 104. His greatest works were The Creation and The Seasons.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Child prodigy who composed many operas, concertos, and symphonies. Operas include The Marriage of Figaro, The Magic Flute, and Don Giovanni.

High culture: The literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes. Consisted of theologians, scientists, philosophers, intellectuals, poets, and dramatists. They were supported by the Aristocrats.

Popular culture: The written and unwritten lore of the masses, typically passed down orally. Was centered on public events (festivals, etc.) and today’s is referred to as entertainment and recreation.

Cesare Beccaria: Wrote On Crimes and Punishments which argued that the punishments should serve to deter bad behavior, not to exercise brutality. He helped to do away with unjust laws and brutal punishments.

Carnival: The most spectacular form of festival, celebrated in Spain, Italy France, Germany, and Austria. Seen as a time of great indulgence. Typical behavior included heavy consumption of food (primarily meat), heavy drinking, intense sexual activity, and the release of pent-up feelings.

Taverns: Regular gathering places for neighborhood men to talk, play games, conduct small business matters, and drink.

Chapbooks: Short brochures that were sold by itinerant peddlers to the lower classes. They contained both spiritual and secular material. These show that popular culture wasn’t only passed down orally.

Religion and the Churches
Joseph II’s Toleration Patent: Recognized Catholicism’s public practice and granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately. He pleased many philosophes push for religious toleration.

Ashkenazic and Sephardic Jews: Ashkenazic=The largest number of Jews who lived in Eastern Europe. Being Jews, they were restricted in their movements, forbidden to own land or hold jobs and had to pay special taxes; resulted in pogroms. Sephardic Jews=expelled from Spain in the 15th century. Many settled in Turkish lands, and some went to cities (Amsterdam, Venice, etc.) where they relatively were free to participate in banking.

Pogroms: Where Jewish communities were massacred in an organized fashion.

John Wesley/Methodism: A religious movement started by John Wesley that Wesley’s followers aided each other in doing the good works that Wesley considered a component of Salvation. Methodism helped to revive Christianity and showed that the Enlightenments stress on reason had not extinguished the need for a spiritual experience in some. Vocabulary cultural relativism the belief that no culture is superior to another because culture is a matter of custom, not reason, and derives its meaning from the group holding it.

Enlightenment an eighteenth-century intellectual movement, led by the philosophers, that stressed the application of reason and the scientific method to all aspects of life.

feminism the belief in the social, political, and economic equality of the sexes also, organized activity to advance women's rights.

high culture the literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling classes. laissez-faire "to let alone." An economic doctrine that holds that an economy is best served when the government does not interfere but allows the economy to self-regulate according to the forces of supply and demand. natural laws a body of laws or specific principles held to be derived from nature and binding upon all human society even in the absence of positive laws.

natural rights certain inalienable rights to which all people are entitled include the right to life, liberty, and property, freedom of speech and religion, and equality before the law.

Neoclassicalism artistic and architectural style that imitated the dignity and simplicity and classical Greece and Rome.

Chapter 18:
The Eighteenth Century: European States, International Wars, and Social Change

The European States
Enlightened absolutism: (enlightened despotism)ideals: equality under law, freedom of religion, freedom of speech/press, freedom to assemble, right to pursue happiness, support of education, arts, and sciences. Absolute rulers with enlightened principles would best reform society. People take direction from and enlightened ruler.

Louis XV: (1715-1774) lazy, weak, and influenced by ministers and mistresses. Was charmed by Madame de Pompadour who gained wealth/power and made important government decisions. Louis lost an empire in 7 years war, large and increasing public debt and taxes, hungry people, carefree life at Versailles = Louis’ corrupt monarchy.

natural rights: privileges that every person had and can not be changed. Equality before law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech/press, right to assemble, hold property and seek happiness. Declaration of Independence summarizes concepts of natural rights. Natural rights established in society by enlightened rulers.

British Parliament : had an increase of power, king chose ministers to guide parliament. Had the power to make laws, levy taxes, pass the budget, and indirectly influence the king’s ministers. **Dominated my landed aristocracy divided into the peers (House of Lords) and the landed gentry (House of Commons).

Frederick William I: (Prussia) consolidates power through civil bureaucracy by giving power to the nobles. Built a strong military (considered an army with a nation). Middle class can get government jobs. General Dictionary: chief administrative agent of central government, supervising military, police, economic, and financial affairs. Supreme values of obedience, honor, and service to the king.

Prussian militarism: army had great size and was known as the greatest army in Europe. Nobles as officers = loyalty to absolute monarch, known as an army with a country and not a country with an army.

Frederick II the Great: (Prussia) son of Fredrick William I, semi-enlightened monarch. Wanted to write and study math/science. “First servant of the state” ruled to serve the nation (opp. of Louis XIV). Took jobs away from non nobles and gave them to the nobles. Often uses his military; participated in the 7 years war and the partition of Poland [into 3 parts]. **Single code of law: religious toleration, no torture, limited freedom of speech, but loved war.

Maria Theresa: (Austria) Pragmatic Sanction- a daughter can become a leader. Catholic, conservative, and consolidates power. Prussia (under Fredrick II) attacks and gains Silesia from Austria in the War of Austrian Succession. Reworked system of administration throughout Austrian Empire.

Joseph II: (Austria) son of Maria Theresa; said philosophy was the lawmaker of an empire. Abolished serfdom which cause nobles to rebel. Advocated equality before law and religious toleration. Efforts were not accepted or supported by the nobility so his plans were not put into action. Continued expanding Habsburg power in Austria.

Catherine the Great: (Russia) from Germany, wife of Tsar Peter III, who was assassinated by nobles. Said she wanted to be Enlightened, but worked with nobility to strengthen their position relative to peasants (pro serfdom); led to very poor conditions for peasants, and revolts in border districts (Emelyan Pugachev’s revolt). Charter of Nobility: gave self-local rule to nobles and would get higher power of Russia in return. Expands Russia, takes land from Ottomans and Poland. Said Diderot’s ideas would turn empire bad. Wars and Diplomacy
Balance of Power: each country and state had an equal status; no country was more powerful than another. A way to counterbalance the power of one state by preventing another from dominating the states. Was not a desire for peace. Large armies created to defend a state’s security.

reason of state: acted as a motivator of diplomacy and foreign policy; looking beyond dynastic interests to the long-term future of their states. New demand for money b/c of new standing armies, navies, and weapons brought the need for a more efficient and effective control of power. Bureaucrats collected taxes and organize states to win wars.

the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748): (Jenkin’s Ear) Habsburg emperor Charles VI (1711-1740) knew that his daughter Maria Theresa would take his place. Charles spent his life negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction (other countries recognized Maria as the legal heir), which was ignored by Frederick II of Prussia, who invaded part of Austria (Silesia). France also invaded part of Austria; Great Britain came to Austria's aid. In the end, countries seized landholdings of other countries throughout the entire world; all returned in 1748, except Silesia. England got part of French North American territory and got back India.

The Seven Years’ War: diplomatic revolution; change of rivalry (Bourbons and Hapsburgs are no longer rivals) France allies w/ Austria & Russia joins to over rule Prussia, Britain joins Prussia b/c hates France; nothing really accomplished. Prussia gets stronger and keeps Silesia – Peace of Hubertusburg: all captured territories were returned & Silesia was recognized as part of Prussia. Robert Clive (leader of army of British East India Co.) kept India for Britain.

the French and Indian War: fighting starts in Ohio Valley & ended in Quebec. Battle of Quebec City- British general James Wolfe defeated French general Louis-Joseph Montcalm. Growing importance of the New World that affects Europe. French removed from North America; Native American tribes allied w/French. Treaty of Paris: France gave up all American possessions. Prussia/England are winners, Austria/France are losers. Great Britain became the world's greatest colonial power.

Standing army: armies increased in size; supplied by nobility (peasants were not recruited). Britain has no large standing army – Hessians in America, Britain, and Netherlands have strong naval power; controlled the seas. There were many surrenders and retreats.

Economic Expansion and Social Change foundling homes: a dumping ground where parents left unwanted children; was a legalized form of infanticide b/c children would often die there; run by people who hated children.

nuclear family: your blood related family; husband controls the family. Family was the heart of the social organization. Primogeniture idea of favoring the first born son was challenged with larger families.

Jethro Tull: Discovered ways to increase yield of farmland by using seed drills and cultivation. Used a hoe to keep soil loose & allowed air and moisture to reach plants, used a seed drill to plant seeds in rows instead of scattering them by hand.

enclosure acts: A movement that created large farms from smaller ones. Increased the yield, but took away land from small farmers; so peasants were unhappy. When landowners/yeoman farmers enclosed old open fields, combining small farms into larger ones. Was resisted by small landowners, but Parliament legally allowed the enclosing of land.

the Bank of England (credit): paper currency increased money circulation; gov’t borrowed from banks and sold bonds. Made loans; in return for lending money to the government, bank was allowed to issue “banknotes” backed by credit.

Textiles: most important product of European industry; 75% of Britain’s exports were woolen cloth. The branch of industry involved in the manufacture of cloth. Produced by the “domestic” or “putting out” system.

cottage industry: spinners and weavers who do their work in their own cottages; was a family enterprise. A merchant-capitalist entrepreneur bought the raw materials and gave them to rural workers who spun the raw material into yarn and then wove it into cloth on looms. Capitalists used profit of finished products to make more.

water frame: powered by horse of water which turned out yarn much faster than cottage spinning wheels. Made an abundance of yarn and led to the development of mechanized looms.

mercantilist theory: finite amount of wealth; country that controlled the most was the richest. Stated that a nation should acquire as much gold and silver as possible, maintain a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports), and that the state should provide subsidies to manufacturers, grant monopolies to traders, build roads/canals, and have high tariffs on imports to limit them.

global economy: increase in world trade with Africa and the New World, mercantilists interest in outside economy lead to more global trade. European economy was heavily influenced by flourishing trade, evident in growing towns and cities. Port cities also grew and trade led to a growth of industry (textiles, sugar, tobacco, and growing numbers of workers. The Social Order of the Eighteenth Century
Peasants: free people who don’t serve nobility; Largest social group, up to 85%. Peasants in Britain, north Italy, the Low Countries, Spain, most of France, and western Germany were legally free, but still had burdens; some peasants lived in poverty. Peasants still under serfdom in Russia and eastern Germany. In Russian peasants were in a state close to slavery.

Serfs: tied to the land and serve nobility; Utilized in Russia and eastern Germany. In Germany, the peasants were bound to the lord’s estate, had to perform labor services on the lord’s land, and couldn’t marry or move without permission and payment of a tax. Russia was still a society of landlords and serfs. And Russian peasants were attached to the landlord and existed in a state approaching slavery.

tithes: taxes on land (peasants owe 1/3 of their crops to the local priests but went to rich landowners instead) developed after the enclosure act; were so high that peasants could not buy back their land that they lost. Portions of one’s harvest or income, paid by medieval peasants to the village church. Were supposed to go to the parish priests, but normally tithes went to towns or aristocratic landowners.

Nobility: aristocratic landowners; 2-3% of the population. Dominated society in Europe. Had legal privileges=judgment by their peers, immunity from severe punishment, and exemption from many taxes. Nobles were normally the officers of armies, and in some countries, the bureaucracy reflected the nobility and landowning nobles controlled the local gov’t. Nobility could be acquired with money/purchasing land.

the Georgian country house: in the country and not the city; a symbol of the power of aristocrats who stay in their house with their servants and don’t associate with society. Country houses-aristocratic estates what showed their domination over the countryside and fulfilled a desire for privacy. Started out reflecting male interests, but eventually had a more feminine influence.

“the grand tour”: a grand tour of Europe for noblemen that was based on education. The aristocratic way of life. Completed aristocratic education by having them tour Europe’s major cities. England viewed it as crucial to their education and during the trip, spent money on gear, servants, etc. Was a dangerous commute; rough seas, pirates, impassable terrain.

Poverty: became more visible during this time period because a raise in taxes and results of the enclosure movement. Illegal to be poor = thrown in poor house where you were worked to death. beggars ranged from 3-30% of the population. While charity used to be God’s work, views changed and saw charity as an encouragement for poverty. France tried to make begging a crime, but accomplished nothing, and trying to make jobs proved ineffective as well.

Chapter 19:
A Revolution in Politics: The Era of the French Revolution and Napoleon

The Beginnings of the Revolutionary Era: The American Revolution
The Treaty of Paris (1783): recognized the independence of the American colonies and granted the Americans control of the western territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. Ended the Revolutionary War.

The United States Constitution: created a central government that was superior to the governments of individual states. Gave government power to levy taxes, raise a national army, regulate domestic and foreign trade, and create a national currency. Federal government divided into three branches; had a president (chief executive), a Senate (chosen by legislatures), and a House of Representatives (elected by the people).

The Bill of Rights: twelve amendments to the U.S. Constitution made by Congress that guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, and assembly, as well as the right to bear arms, protection against unreasonable searches and arrests, trial by jury, due process of law, and protection of property rights.

George Washington: commander in chief of the Continental Army; military experience came from the French and Indian War. Successful military and political leader, led the American victory over Great Britain in the American Revolutionary War.

marquis de Lafayette: volunteered for service in America to fight against England. Associated with George Washington; had ideas of individual liberties, republicanism, and popular sovereignty. Member of Society of Thirty: club made of people from Paris salons.

Background to the French Revolution the First Estate: clergy is 1% of the population; not always very rich, exempt from the taille and owned 10% of land. Church had to pay voluntary contribution to the states every 5 years. Radically divided: higher clergy from aristocratic families and parish priests were poor commoners.

the Second Estate: nobility is 2% of the population; owned 25-30% of land and held many government positions in France (as well as in military, the law courts, and the higher church offices). Played important role in French society; controlled heavy industry. Divided to nobility of the robe/sword; all want to expand their privileges by overthrowing the monarchy. Also exempt from the taille.

the Third Estate: middle class, workers and peasants are 97% of the population; divided by occupation, education and wealth. No more serfdom but peasants still had duties to their landlords; had to pay a fee for using village facilities. Suffered form the rise in bread prices. Also included artisans and merchants; wealthier middle class could still enter nobility of the robe (gap from nobles and wealthier third estate was not big).

bourgeoisie: conventional middle–class; 8% included merchants, industrialists and bankers who controlled resources of trade, manufacturing, and finance also benefiting from economic wealth.

(outline the causes of the French Revolution)

The French Revolution the Estates-General: consisted of 1 representative from each estate (3rd estate gets 2); King Louis XVI called for this meeting to fix the financial crisis (had not met in a really long time).

the National Assembly: made by the Third estate; wanted a bigger say in the Estates General (to vote by head). Made a constitution of reforms.

cahiers de doléances: statements of local grievances (comparable to the declaration of independence) drafted during the election of the Estates General.

the Tennis Court Oath: made by the National Assembly saying that they would never go back to the Estates General and want to make reforms with a new constitution.

Louis XVI: had to rely on nobles for money. Called the meeting of the Estates General to fix the financial crisis; spent a lot of money and put France in debt.

the Bastille: peasants stormed Bastille to get weapons and gunpowder; took over the prison and destroyed it by hand. (start of revolution) people think that the king’s troops are coming to Paris.

agrarian revolts: peasants were really poor and hungry because their crops went to the nobles so they held small revolts.

the Great Fear: the fear that nobles and wealthy had that the peasants would revolt against them. Peasants had the fear that the wealthy would seize all of their crops.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen:

the March on Versailles: thousands of Parisian women marched to Versailles to demand bread from King Louis XVI; didn’t like Marie Antoinette because she wasn’t sympathetic to them. Take the king and queen to Paris so they can keep them under control. Marie Antoinette: “Let them eat cake!”

the Civil Constitution of the Clergy: church of France would report to the government and not the pope; meant to fix the corrupt clergy (Catholic Church was corrupt).

the Constitution of 1791: completed by the National Assembly establishing a new constitutional monarchy; keeps the king but limits its power. Jacobins: more radical middle class that didn’t want a king.

sans-culottes: peasants that didn’t wear breaches because they were poor; allied with the Jacobins because the king did not benefit them.

the National Convention: king tries to sneak out of France so a new republic with more powers is created. Jacobins and Girondins emerge during this time.

The Girondins: still revolutionary but sympathetic to the king and didn’t want him to die; okay with keeping the king but still wanted legislative power.

the Mountain: called mountain because its members seats were on the side of the convention hall where the floor slanted up; member of the Jacobin club.

the Committee of Public Safety: lead by Robespierre; executed people that did not support the revolution.

Maximilien Robespierre: started the reign of terror; supported blood shed and execution. Eventually killed because people turned on him and partly for their own prevention of being executed. Responsible for the death of King Louis XVI.

the Reign of Terror: when everyone who did not support the revolution was executed by the guillotine.

de-Christianization: Robespierre de-Christianizing religion. Removed religious names from street names, churches were pillaged, priests were encouraged to marry, held ceremonies to worship reason in former cathedrals.

Toussaint L’Ouverture: lead the revolution in Santo Domingo (colony of France), successful at first, but Napoleon came and kicked him out, long-term effect was that the revolution succeeded and shook slavery in the New World

the Directory: a group of five men that rules France for 5 years; restored order to society and calms down the people (end of revolution).

The Age of Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte: lieutenant in the French military; made peace with the Church, supported equality for all men but not women’s rights and other races, had limited freedom of speech, and religious toleration but loved war.

the Concordat (1801): goes against the civil constitution of the clergy; making peace with the church.

the Code Napoleon (Civil Code): system of law recognizing natural right (only for men) also limiting freedom of speech so there were no more revolts.

Prefects: instituted new officials as the central government agent’s; responsible for supervising all aspects of local government.

the Third Coalition: (Britain, Austria and Prussia) countries Napoleon is fighting against.

the Continental System: to defeat Britain and attempt to prevent British goods from reaching the European continent in order to damage its economy and weaken its capability to wage war. Napoleon knows he can’t invade Britain by sea. In response, Britain attempts to blockade Europe.

Nationalism: political creed that came during the French revolution; power behind the possibility to create large armies during the Napoleonic eras.

the Great Retreat: when Napoleon tried to invade Russia; Russia retreated towards Moscow, kept on retreating during winter which weakened French army so Russian can attack. Slash and burn or scorched earth policy by Russia. Waterloo: Napoleon was defeated by the British and sent to the island of St. Helena where he died.

Essays:
Write a formal essay outline including: a thesis statement, topic sentences, supporting evidence, and concluding statement for each of the following questions:

1) Identify the major social groups in France on the eve of the 1789 Revolution. Assess the extent to which their aspirations were achieved in the period from the meeting of the Estates General in May of 1789 to the declaration of the republic in September of 1792.

2) In what ways did Napoleon’s policies repudiate the accomplishments of the French Revolution and it what was did they strengthen them?

Chapter 20: The Industrial Revolution and its Impact on European Society

The Industrial Revolution in Great Britain

Agricultural revolution: The application of new agricultural techniques (changing farming methods) that allowed for a large increase in productivity in the 18th century.

The cotton industry: The flying shuttle sped the process of hand weaving, like in a cottage industry, yet it caused a shortage in yarn. So, through Crompton’s mule, a combination of Hargreaves’s spinning jenny and Arkwright’s water frame, more yarn was made. Then Cartwright’s power loom allowed the cloth weaving to catch up with the spinning of yarn. It led to people building their lives around factories so they could work.

The steam engine: Watt built the engine that revolutionized the production of cotton goods and allowed the factory system to spread to other areas not near water since it was powered by coal, securing new industries. Cotton was Britain’s forte and these machines caused coal production to increase.

The iron industry: Previously, iron was smelted by Middle Age techniques; now with Cort’s puddling system used coke from coal to turn poor iron into high-quality iron. The growing supply of less costly metal encouraged the use of machinery in other industries.

Coal: The coke in coal was used to in puddling to create a fancier type of wrought iron. Also, it was used to power the steam engine instead of water or horses.

Railroads: First used in Germany’s mining process and then the British coal mines, horse-powered trains on wood or iron rails now carried heavier loads. Its demand for iron and coal helped other industries grow. Also, middle-class investors invested in the joint-stock companies because of the huge capital demands. Railway construction made new jobs for the poor. Cheaper goods made bigger markets and increasing sales made more factories, creating a break from old economic ways. It was a form of power. Stephenson’s Rocket: It was used on the 1st public railway in 1830 that went 32 miles from Liverpool to Manchester at 16 mph.

Richard Trevithick: Trevithick made the 1st steam-powered locomotive in Wales.

The factory system: The product of the cotton industry, the factory, demanded a new form of worker discipline. People worked for a set amount of time and paid to run a machine, however tough rules had to be followed to maintain an orderly and efficient workplace.

Evangelical values: Methodists must follow a disciplined path, one where laziness was a sin. So, people believed that working hard in this life meant that they would have fun in the next one.

Britain’s Great Exhibition 1851: In the Crystal Palace in Kensington, London, 100,000 exhibits displayed many products made during the I.R. This fair attracted 6 million visitors from all around and displayed Britain’s wealth/success. The I.R. showed how humans dominate nature.

The Spread of Industrialization

Tariffs: Duties or taxes imposed on imported goods, usually to raise revenue and to discourage imports and protect domestic industries. The German writer, List, came to America and returned to Germany as a US Consul. In his National System of Political Economy he believed that protective tariffs were the key to industrialization.

Joint-stock investment banks: A bank created by selling shares of stock to investors. Such banks potentially have access too much more capital than private banks owned by one or a few individuals. Yet, the Belgian Societe Generale and Banque de Belgique banks and others took in savings of small investors and bought shares in the new industries.

The American system: It reduced costs and revolutionized production by saving labor, important to a society that had few skilled artisans. i.e. The Harpers Ferry arsenal built muskets with different parts so the final product could be put together easily.

The Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Great Famine: Ireland had increased their population due to the beneficial potato, but in 1845 they turned black because of blight. This famine caused 1 million deaths and 2 million emigrates to the USA/Britain. Ireland was the only country to have its population decrease.

The Poor Law Commission: They made detailed reports on the social investigations on inhumane living conditions. The investigators noticed the physical (height) and moral (crime) effects of living in unkempt areas.

Cholera: An infectious and often fatal bacterial disease of the small intestine, typically contracted from infected water supplies and causing severe vomiting and diarrhea. Middle-class citizens were willing to support the public health reforms because of the fear of cholera.

The industrial middle class/working class: They made/bought/planned out the factories because they were resourceful and greedy. They were in charge of all the money and how to increase profits. Most were merchants and Quakers, a religious minority.

Child labor (include legislation): They were used to spin cotton, gather cotton under machines since they were small, and were cheap labor. Orphans were in the care of parishes that allowed them to become apprentices to factory owners. Many became deformed. The legislation affected children in textile factories and mines (not small workshops).

Poor Laws: In 1834 the British government fixed poverty among the working class by establishing workhouses where jobless poor people were forced to live. It was meant to discipline the poor, leading to family separations, people living in dorms, given work assignments, and fed bad food.

Trade unions: An association of skilled workers in the same trade, formed to help members secure the better wages, benefits, and working conditions. Strikes were carried out, causing Parliament to repeal the Combination Acts. Then national unions formed, like when Owen caused the Grand National Consolidated Trade Union to form. It was to coordinate a general

Chapter 21:
Reaction, Revolution, and Romanticism (1815-1850)

The Conservative Order (1815-1830)

The Congress of Vienna: In September 1814, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, or the Quadruple Alliance restored the Bourbon monarchy (led by Louis XVIII). They all met to make a final peace settlement. Created new Germanic states, or the Germanic Confederation to replace the Napoleonic Confederation of Rhine.

Klemens von Metternich: (1773-1859) He was the leader of the Congress of Vienna and the Austrian foreign minister. He was an experienced diplomat.

The principle of legitimacy: Metternich said he guided to Vienna by the principle of legitimacy. He thought that to reestablish peace and stability he had to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions. (i.e. reinstituting Bourbons)

balance of power: A distribution of power among several states such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another. The new territorial arrangements of Poland would prevent any one country from dominating Europe. So Russia’s gains were balanced by strengthening Prussia and Austria. Also, France was defensively bordered to protect Europe from another outburst (French Rev.).

conservatism: An ideology based on tradition and social stability that favored the maintenance of established institutions, organized religion, and obedience to authority and hated change, especially abrupt change. Against liberalism and nationalism. Influenced by Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France or Joseph de Maistre and his desire for hereditary monarchy.

Concert of Europe: The Quadruple Alliance formed this to prevent revolutions/wars. It broke down when Britain was kicked out for not believing in the principle of intervention.

The Quadruple Alliance: Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria were against reinstituting Bonapartist power and they met in conferences to discuss their common interest. At the 1818 meeting (best one at Aix-la-Chapelle) they agreed to remove their armies from France and add them to the Concert of Europe. Yet, in 1820 at Troppau the revolution in Spain (Bourbon Ferdinand VII was restored) and Italy (Ferdinand I) was dealt with.

The principle of intervention: Since Italy’s revolts threatened Austria’s domination of the peninsula, Metternich said at Troppau that great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Latin American revolutions: Spain and Portugal ruled this land but they gained national independence when Napoleon overthrew the Spanish Bourbon monarchy. Bolivar or “the Liberator” free Colombia and Venezuela. Then Jose de San Martin freed Chile and Lima, Peru (center of Spain’s power). Then Portugal recognized Brazil’s independence. Britain worked with the US President Monroe (The Monroe Doctrine) to give independence to Latin American nations and ban European invasion. Also, Britain’s navy was strong and kept out invaders. Now LatinA’s economy/trade was dominated by Britain.

Tories and Whigs: Both were dominated by the landed class. The Whigs received support from the industrial middle class and the Tory ministers dominated the government and did not want to change the political/electoral system. After 1815, Tories made the Corn Law that put high tariffs on foreign grain due to the falling agricultural prices. The increased tariffs were good for landowners but bad for workers since the price of bread rose. This led to Peterloo Massacres and revolts where Parliament took away the freedom to meet/press. The Tories avoided the electoral demands. Louis XVIII: A Bourbon from France who accepted Napoleon's Civil Code, preserved the rights of those who purchased confiscated land, made a bicameral (2 houses--Chamber of Peers(chosen by king) + Chamber of Deputies (chosen by electorate of 100,000 wealthy men) legislature, and recognized equality by law. Ultraroyalists, or liberals eager to extend revolutionary reforms, criticized the king’s willingness to keep Napoleonic ideas. They wanted to have a monarchial system dominated by the aristocracy and to restore the Catholic Church.

Ferdinand VII: The Cortes, or a liberal constitution that allowed an elected parliamentary assembly to work was torn up and he persecuted the members. Leading to a revolt with army officers, high-middle class merchants, and liberal intellectuals to revolt. Again he was going to restore the Cortes but the with the policy of intervention, France forced the revolutionaries to leave Madrid.

The Austrian Empire: Austria and Prussia were the 2 greatest powers of the 38 sovereign states that made up the Germanic Confederation (made up in the 1815 Vienna settlement). Austria was a multicultural state (11 different nationalities) under Habsburg rule, providing a common bond. The German part was economically/politically advanced. Austria was held together by the Habsburg dynasty, imperial civil service, imperial army, and Catholic Church. But autonomic Hungarians threatened the state. The growing liberalism/nationalism hurt conservatism.

Nicholas I: Since the Russian King Alexander’s brother Constantine was replaced by Nicholas as an heir, the Decembrist Revolt between military Northern Unionists and Nicholas’s troops led to the execution of the Union leaders. Nicholas then turned from conservative to reactionary to avoid another revolt. He strengthened the bureaucracy and the secret/political police, or Third Section of the tsar’s chancellery (deported sketch people, watched foreigners, and gave their opinion). There were no revolutions with him in charge.

The Ideologies of Change

Liberalism: An ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. Economic liberalism is the idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy but only defend the country, build roads, and provide police protection for individuals (laissez-faire). Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly (freedom of speech/press/by law/religiously/separation of church and state). Not equal political rights. Liberalists weren’t democrats.

Thomas Malthus: In his Essay on the Principles of Population he argued that population increases at a geometric rate while food supply increases at a slower arithmetic rate, resulting in overpopulation and starvation. So poverty was the result of nature and how no government should be involved.

David Ricardo: In his Principles of Political Economy developed his “iron law of wages” following Malthus, arguing that an increase in population means an increase in workers causing wages to lessen. Thus resulting in misery and starvation, reducing the population, workers, and wages causing an increase in childbirth and the cycle keeps going. Raising wages is stupid.

John Stuart Mill: A liberal English philosopher who wrote On Liberty about “absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects” that needed to be protected from government censorship and tyranny of the majority. He also supported women’s rights in his On the Subjection of Women written with his wife. He said the gender’s were only inferior because of their jobs not body structure. And in ...Women he said with = education they were = to men.

Nationalism: A sense of national consciousness based on awareness of being part of a community—a “nation”—that has common institutions, traditions, language, and customs and that becomes the focus of the individual’s primary political loyalty. Each country wanted national unity. It threatened political order (internationally/nationally). Allies with liberalism.

Utopian socialism: Intellectuals and theorists in the early 19th century who favored equality in social and economic conditions and wished to replace private property and competition with collective ownership and cooperation. They wanted a better environment for humanity.

Revolution and Reform

The July Revolution:

The Reform Act of 1832:

The Revolutions of 1848:

France’s Second Republic:

The Frankfurt Assembly:

Young Italy:

The Emergence of an Ordered Society

Police/police systems:

Prison reform: Culture in the Age of Reaction and Revolution: The Mood of Romanticism

Romanticism:

Mary Shelley:

William Wordsworth:

Beethoven:

Berlioz:
Chapter 12: The Age of the Renaissance
Jacob Burckhardt: brought the “rebirth” into classical Greek and Roman antiquities. Renaissance ideas– revival of classical ideas,

Machiavelli: wrote The Prince where he stated that it is better to be feared as a leader than it is to be loved. (“ … as strong as a lion and as shrewd as a fox”) Independent city-states vs. one monarchy

humanism, emphasis on human individual, emotions, moving away from religious themes.

Luther with justification by faith, no selling indulgences

Henry VII thought he had land in France Joan of Arc. catholic countries fighting protestant countries for the pope,

Guns, germs, steel, Cortes invades Tenochtitlan b/c invaded by small pox
Lateen sails, better technology.

Henry VII, dissolves parliament and tries to make Anglicism more catholic, raises taxes.

Versailles, consolidate power, nobles jobs, wars, (war of Spanish succession) consolidated everything in Versailles
Absolutism: consolidate power under one king who has the final say. Fighting in a lot of wars.

SR starts to undermine the church’s theories, detrimental to woman

Hobbes, Rousseau, Locke, king’s power came from the people and had the right to ovethrow

Three estates, republic, w/ a say in government, freed by the FR

St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, kicked the Huguenots out of France
Edict of Nantes: kicked out the Huguenots Chapter 22:
An Age of Nationalism and Realism (1850-1871)

The France of Napoleon III

Napoleon III: (1852-1870) Was a conservative leader and president of the French Republic who wanted all the power for himself. So when the National Assembly didn’t allow a reelection, he sent his army to seize control of the govt in Dec. 1851. Then he restored universal male suffrage and had the people reelect him for a 10 year term. However it wasn’t enough and he asked them to vote for him to be their emperor, (called Napoleon III) thus starting the Second Empire. He led an authoritarian govt who controlled the armed forces, chief of state, civil service, legislation, and declaring war. The Legislative Corps made it seem they represented those who voted for them but they had no real power. He made France economically prosperous by using the govt resources to build infrastructure, hospitals, and transportation, causing the spread of industrialization. He remodeled Paris to be friendlier and with wider streets yet helpful for the military. Opposition to his policies caused him to legalize trade unions, allow strikes, the Legislative Corps had more say in state affairs (budgets) and the people voted for Napoleon again (he beat a parliament regime). However, when he sent troops to Mexico to contain Mexican liberal/conservative battles, his foreign policy failed and led to a war with Prussia in 1870.

Emperor Maximilian: Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian of Austria as the emperor of Mexico after the French controlled the liberal/conservative battles that took place in Mexico. However, when the troops were needed in Europe, Maximilian was defenseless and surrendered to the liberal Mexican in 1867 and executed.

the Crimean War: As the Ottoman Empire was declining, European govts wanted control over them. Russia had the upper hand and scared everyone else, while Austria wanted more land but no conflict with Russia, and France/Britain wanted more commercial opportunities and naval bases. Russia then invaded the Ottoman area and the Ottomans declared war, later on Britain/France declared war on Russia to return to a balance of power. Austria was neutral. Part of Russia lost after Tsar Nicholas I’s death and his successor, Alexander II sued for peace. In the Treaty of Paris, Russia lost land and the Black Sea/Wallachia/Moldavia were neutral. This war broke up the Concert of Europe, made Austria (they didn’t help R) and Russia enemies, Russia was humiliated and didn’t partake in anything for 20 years, Britain had no Continental affairs, and Austria had no allies.

the Dardenelles: The British feared Russia would gain power from the weak Ottoman govt by seizing territory or the Dardanelles— the strait between the Aegean and the Sea of Marmara that separates European Turkey from Asian Turkey

Florence Nightingale: Many died in the Crimean war from Cholera, but less died for Britain because of Florence Nightingale who insisted on strict sanitary conditions and helped make nursing a profession for middle-class women.

National Unification: Italy and Germany

Count Camillo di Cavour: The new king of Piedmont, Victor Emmanuel II, made Cavour the prime minister. He was a liberal nobleman who made his money through agriculture, banking, and shipping. He was a moderate who like a constitutional govt and a persuasive politician. He built infrastructure, means of transportation, and promoted business plans by expanding credit and stimulating investment. All this money went toward an army for Piedmont to take down Austria, but he needed French aid. Him and Napoleon III agreed to drive out the Austrians from Italy and make Piedmont bigger in exchange for France getting Savoy and Nice and Central Italy was given to Napoleon’s cousin, Prince Napoleon, who married King Emmanuel’s daughter. So Austrian invaded Piedmont and the French defeated them easily and made peace without telling Italy because the war would’ve gone on forever and Prussia was allying with Austria. So Piedmont only got Lombardy and Austria had Venetia, but later on the national N. Italy states joined Piedmont easily.

Giuseppe Garibaldi: An Italian patriot, who liked a democratic republicanism, supported Mazzini and the republican Young Italy, raised an army of the Red Shirts in Sicily and revolted against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies. He won and wanted to get Rome too but Cavour stepped in to prevent war with France. So, Cavour’s Piedmont army went to Naples and stopped Garibaldi before anything happened (Garibaldi didn’t want to start a civil war). After, the people of the Papal States and Two Sicilies agreed to be ruled under a centralized government around Piedmont and under King Emmanuel II of Savoy.

Zollverein: A Prussian made German Customs Union, was a coalition of German states formed to manage customs and economic policies within their territories.

Otto von Bismarck: When the Prussian legislature rejected the new military budget, William I put the conservative Count Otto von Bismarck as prime minister. He was a Junker (landowning aristocrat) and a previous ambassador to Russia and France, so he knew of European affairs. He was a moderate, politician, ultimate realist, and opportunist who only partook in war when he knew he would win. So, he asked parliament again if he could have an army but he was rejected and decided to govern Prussia by ignoring parliament, but they didn’t care. However, people disliked Bismarck’s domestic policy so he tried a foreign one, leading to the Danish war. He had a bill of protection passed by the liberals of parliament, since he was so successful. He proved that nationalism and authoritarian govt could be combined and how nationalism could gain support from liberals and prevent govt reform.

The Danish War (1864): The duchies of Schleswig and Holstein (which had a big German pop.) were run by the Danish govt, angering Prussia who allied with Austria. They beat the Danes and split the duchies evenly, yet Bismarck realized that if Prussia was to dominate the Protestant northern Germanic Confederation then Austria would have to be isolated.

Realpolitik: A system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations.

The Austro-Prussian War: In 1866, Italy wanted unification, so they allied with Prussia. Italy’s army was defeated but Prussia’s win gave Venetia to Italy. Bismarck told Italy, Russia, and France to be neutral in this war, isolating Austria. To everyone’s surprise, Prussia won due to better guns (breech-loading needle) and railroads. Austria lost Venetia to France and could not intervene in German affairs.

North German Confederation: After the Austro-Prussian War, the German states north of the Main River were organized into the North German Confederation, controlled by Prussia. The Catholic south German states were independent but agreed to help Prussia out military-wise. Bismarck made a constitution that gave each German state a local govt, but the king of Prussia was head of the Confederation and the chancellor (Bismarck) was responsible to the king. The king had the army and foreign policy in his control. And Parliament now as made of the Bundesrat (federal council) and Reichstag (lower house).

Franco-Prussian War: In 1870, France left Rome and the Italian army added and made Rome the capital of the united Italian state. When Spain’s Queen Isabella II’s throne was given to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, France was upset since they were surrounded by the Prussian Hohenzollern dynasty). So, when they requested that a Hohenzollern should never be in throne, Bismarck translated their request into an insult, sparking a war. Prussia captured Napoleon III and ended the Second French Empire, resulting in a peace treaty where France had to pay $1 billion and give up Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

Second German Empire: The southern German states entered the North German Confederation and in the Hall of Mirrors of Louis XIV’s Versailles, William I, with Bismarck, was named emperor of the Second German Empire (1st was HRE). German unity was achieved by merging into Prussia and it symbolized the triumph of authoritarian, military values over liberal, constitutional sentiments.

Nation Building and Reform

Austria-Hungary: A centralized autocracy was established under Alexander von Bach and there was a unified system of administration, law, and taxation by Germans. Hungary was ruled by military officers and the Catholic Church was the state church/controlled education. However after the Austrian loss to the Italians, Emperor Francis Joseph established an imperial parliament (Reichsrat) was meant to represent every nationality, but the minorities like the Hungarians were left out. After the Austro-Prussian war, the Ausgleich, or Compromise of 1867 that made the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Each part had a constitution, bicameral legislature, own govt for domestic affairs, and its own capital. And Francis Joseph ruled both, with a common army, foreign policy, and finance system. The Hungarians were independent but other minorities (i.e. Slavic, Poles, Croats, Czechs) were “ruled” by the German speaking Austrians and Hungarians.

Alexander II: He came to power during the Crimean War and abolished serfdom in RUSSIA.

emancipation proclamation (Russian): On March 3, 1861 he said peasants could own property, marry whoever, and bring suits in the law courts. The govt gave the worst land to the peasants by buying it from landowners. So, the bad land didn’t allow the peasants to grow their food as the population increased. Also, the peasants had to pay the state back for the land to their MIR, or a village commune.

zemstvos: In 1864, Alexander II made local assemblies that were self-governing. They were voted in by noble landowners, townspeople, and peasants (based on amount of land one owns), so the nobles had an advantage. They had limited power to give public services (i.e. education, famine relief, infrastructure) and levied taxes to pay for it. Liberals wanted it to be a nat’l parliament but the bureaucrats didn’t allow it. They made local and provincial courts/judicial code that accepted the idea of equality over the law.

populism: Students who followed Herzen’s (“Land and Freedom” slogan and an underground radical organization) ideas of the Russian peasant being the main tool for social reform. Also, the village commune could be used as a self-governing body. However, not many peasants accepted this idea, so violent populists attacked the tsarist autocracy (i.e. Zasulich shot the governor of St. Petersburg).

People’s Will: Similar to Zasulich, other radicals like the People’s Will, assassinated Alexander II and his son, Alexander III returned to traditional means of repression (conservative).

Queen Victoria: The longest English rein of 1837-1901, led by Queen Victoria, was the Victorian Age. The aristocratic and upper middle class dominated Parliament was indecisive. Specifically, the prime minister, Lord Palmerston was a Whig but didn’t care about what party he was in, making it easier to make political compromises. He also didn’t like reform and didn’t want to expand the franchise.

Reform Bill 1867: The Tory/Conservative, Benjamin Disraeli, wanted to convince the new members of Parliament to be Conservative. So, in the Reform Bill of 1867 he lowered the requirements to vote, thus persuading many male urban workers to vote (1M2M) but it spread liberalism (Whigs) not conservatism (Tories).

William Gladstone: A Whig/Liberal against Disraeli who made the reforms; secret ballot voting, civil service jobs were determined by an exam not class/$$, and ended the purchasing of military positions. His Education Act of 1870 wanted to make elementary schools open to all children. These liberal reforms ended abuses and allowed people with talent to compete fairly, strengthening the nation and its institutions.

Dominion of Canada:

Industrialization and the Marxist Response

The Communist Manifesto: In the 1848 The Communist Manifesto written by two Germans, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx was originally a Jew turned Protestant and was a radical journalist whose newspaper was shut down. In Paris he met Engels, who wrote The Conditions of the Working Class in England about British “wage slavery”, and Engels financially aided Marx. They joined a German socialist revolutionary group, The Communist League, where they expressed their ideas on the working-class treatment. These ideas shown in The Communist Manifesto that was released on the eve of a revolution, was meant to rouse the working class to revolt. Marx’s ideas were German (ideas from German philosophers, like Hegel, used dialectic—everything evolves, and all change in history is the result of conflicts b/w antagonistic ideas) and French (a revolt can restructure society + socialism). He also thought the course of history is decided by material forces.

bourgeoisie vs. proletariat: The middle class/bourgeoisie took control of the govt and the govt of the state reflected and defended the interests of the industrial middle class. Meanwhile, the proletariats, or industrial working class, were rising against the bourgeoisie and IF they overthrew them then the proletariats would become a dictatorship to reorganize production strategies and a classless society would emerge. Then the state (an instrument of the bourgeoisie) would end since no one represented that classes’ opinions/ This would end class struggles and lead to a progress of science, technology, industry, and more $$. However, the revolution failed and Marx went to London to write Das Kapital, which was finished by Engel.

First International: Marx wanted to organize the working-class movement and believed that communists were the best working-class party. He participated in the International Working Men’s Association, formed by the British and French trade unionists. He was a leader in the First International’s General Council. However, this group failed due to internal arguments within the ranks yet was revived in 1889. Socialism’s fate was in the hands of national socialist parties.

Science and Culture in an Age of Realism

materialism:

Louis Pasteur:

Joseph Lister:

medical schools:

Elizabeth Blackwell:

Realism:

Charles Dickens:

Gustave Courbet:

Franz Liszt:

Richard Wagner:

Chapter 23:
Mass Society in an Age of Progress (1871-1894)

The Growth of Industrial Prosperity
The Second Industrial Revolution: After 1871, the material growth created the Second IR full of steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum led the way to new industrial frontiers.

Steel: As a replacement to iron, new methods to shape steel made lighter, smaller, and faster machines. The USA, then Germany, then Britain were the best steel producers.

Thomas Edison and Joseph Swan: The American Thomas Edison had created the light bulb and the British Joseph Swan opened homes and cities to illumination by electric lights.

Alexander Graham Bell: He invented the telephone in 1876, spreading means of communication.

Gulielmo Marconi: He sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic in 1901.

Internal combustion engine (and all the inventions that went with it!): The prototype was fired by gas and air in 1878, but in 1897 oil engines ran off of liquid fuels (petroleum). Some inventions were oil burning naval fleets, Gottlieb Daimler’s light engine in 1886 for the automobile, the American Henry Ford’s Model T cars, the Zeppelin, Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, Wilbur, and Orville Wright made the first flight in a fixed-wing gas powered aircraft. WWI caused the growth in aircraft production.

Cartels: Manufacturers or suppliers that maintain prices at a high level and restrict competition.

European economic zones: The advanced industrialized core that had a high standard of living, transportation, and healthy/educated people were in G.B., Belgium, France, Netherlands, Germany, W. Austro-Hungarian, and N. Italy. And the backwards, agricultural, unindustrialized areas were in the south and east, like S. Italy, most of Austria-Hungary, Spain, Portugal, the Balkan kingdoms, and Russia. These differences caused more grain and lower transportation costs, thus lowering their prices.

White collar jobs (women’s): Women were viewed as one who takes care of the household while the males work and earn their wages. But when there wasn’t enough money, women wanted to work to provide for their families, even if the jobs were in sweatshops. But after 1870, bigger industrial plants and the expansion of government services made more white-collar jobs (clerks, typists, secretaries, file clerks, salesclerks, teachers, nurses). Most jobs required little skills except for literacy. The women were generally the working-class.

The “shrieking sisters”: Prostitution was a way of making profit for the young, poor women. Their acts were overlooked by the govt, except for the Contagious Diseases Acts where authorities examined prostitutes for venereal disease. If they had it they were locked up in lock hospitals where they were taught morals. However, middle-class women under Josephine Butler revolted against this act since only women were punished for having a disease and not men. The “shrieking sisters” discussed these matters in public and finally they repealed the act.

Social Democratic Party: The two Marxist leaders, Wilhelm Liebknecht and August Bebel, the German Social Democratic Party spread Marxism and was a part of the German parliament, Reichstag. They wanted to improve the working class conditions. Then in France, Jean Jaures used revolutionary socialism and unified the socialist parties into one big Marxist one. In Russia it was the Marxist Social Democratic Labor Party. Eventually, leaders of the social parties formed the Second International made of national groups that participated in May Day or a day of strikes and mass labor demonstrations. It broke up due to differences.

Revisionist socialism (evolutionary socialism): Evolutionary socialism is a socialist doctrine espoused by Eduard Bernstein, a member of the Germans Social Democratic Party, who argued that socialists should stress cooperation and evolution to attain power by democratic means rather than by conflict and revolution. It’s also known as revisionism, or a socialist doctrine that rejected Marx's emphasis on class struggle and revolution and argued instead that workers should work through political parties to bring about gradual change.

Anarchism: a political theory that holds that all governments and existing social institutions are unnecessary and advocates a society based on voluntary cooperation. In the beginning it wasn’t a violent movement and they thought people were innately good but were corrupted by the state and society. The Russian Michael Bakunin thought small groups of well-trained, fanatical revolutionaries could commit enough violence that the state would disintegrate. After Bakunin died, many anarchist revolutionaries assassinated impt leaders but the state didn’t collapse. The Emergence of a Mass Society
Mass Society: a society in which the concerns of the majority—the lower classes—play a prominent role characterized by extension of voting rights, an improved standard of living for the lower classes, and mass education.

The Public Health Act of 1875: In Britain, they prohibited the construction of new buildings without running water and an internal drainage system to improve living conditions.

V.A. Huber: An early German housing reformer who believed a clean house led to a stable family life and then a stable society. So, by building apartments to rent, landowners would have to keep up by raising their housing standards. i.e. Octavia Hill rehabilitated old homes and built new ones to house 3,500 tenants.

Garden cities: Wealthy reformer-philanthropists, like Ebenezer Howard, founded the British garden city movement that advocated for the construction of new towns separated from each other by open country that would provide the recreational areas fresh air and a sense of community that would encourage a healthy family life. i.e. Letchward Garden City in 1903 was the first one.

Plutocrats: wealthy class that controlled government and industry in the late nineteenth/early twentieth century. They were only 5% of the population but controlled 40% of its wealth. They were aristocrats, industrialists, bankers, and merchants. They formed the upper middle class with aristocrats when they bought landed estates.

Boy Scouts: A way to have leisure activities center around national military concerns and character building. In Britain in 1908, boys from ages 12-18 participated in adventures, earning merit badges, and ranks to symbolize discipline, patriotism, and self-sacrifice. It was founded by Robert Baden-Powell who encouraged his sister to make a girls’ division. This was for the middle-class. 

Universal elementary education: Mandatory elementary schools were provided by the state. The govt even trained and paid the teachers and provided a compulsory elementary education to the masses. Having an education helped to get a job and the expansion of voting rights required a more educated electorate. It also spread patriotism and nationalism, but religion was lost. Also, there was a universal language. There was an increase in literacy.

“Yellow press”: After literacy increased, mass-circulation newspapers like the Evening News and Daily Mail sold millions of copies in a day. In America, the “yellow press” was written in an understood style and was sensational. It was about gossip, sports, crimes, etc. And it was cheap.

Mass leisure: forms of leisure that appeal to large numbers of people in a society including the working classes emerged at the end of the nineteenth century to provide workers with amusements after work and on weekends used during the twentieth century by totalitarian states to control their populations. 

Mass tourism: A form of mass leisure, influenced by Thomas Cook, the idea of visiting another place by train increased profits, lowered prices, increased the amount of passengers, and spread tourism. Cook offered tours of Paris and Switzerland.

Team sports: Another form of mass leisure was sports, which were now organized with rules and referees. i.e. English Football Association, American Bowling Congress, etc. They were not only for fun but a form of training (teamwork, military skills). Soon sports became professionalized and urban transportation led to the construction of stadiums for the teams. They were mainly male dominated.

The National State
Gladstone: In his Reform Act of 1884, this Brit gave the vote to all men who paid regular rents or taxes, now including the agricultural workers, and added 2 million voters. He made a limited land reform to help the Irish who were being evicted by the British. The angry Irish turned into terrorist. Then he introduced a home rule bill to make an Irish Parliament without granting independence. But even this compromise was voted down in Parliament since the Conservative members thought only more violence will ensue. He tried again when he was prime minister but he lost.

Reform Act: Gladstone gave the right to vote to all men who paid regular rents/taxes and now included agricultural workers.

Redistribution Act: It eliminated historic boroughs and counties and established constituencies with almost equal populations and one representative each.

Mass politics: Mass politics is a political order resting on the emergence of mass political parties.

Home rule: self-government desire of Irish representatives in Parliament in the late nineteenth century.

Parnell: He was the leader of the Irish representatives in Parliament and he called for home-rule or self-govt by having a separate Parliament but not complete independence.

Irish Land League: Even with Gladstone’s help, the Irish formed the Irish Land League which advocated independence; they called Parliament to at least institute land reform.

The Paris Commune: In France, when the republicans lost to the monarchy, radicals formed an independent republican govt, the Paris Commune. But the National Assembly crushed it, thus angering the workers who defended the Commune through fighting. However, the govt killed the Commune defenders or sent to New Caledonia to be jailed.

The French Third Republic: Bismarck installed universal manhood suffrage after they won the Franco-Prussian War and the citizens voted for a monarchy. The Constitution of 1875 solidified the Third Republic for 65 years. It strengthened the radical republicans. General Boulanger attracted everyone who hated the Third Republic and was going to have a coup d’état but he fled in the end.

Bismarck: He was the chancellor of the new German state who was responsible to the emperor, prevented the growth of democracy. First he worked with the liberals to centralize Germany through common codes and commercial law. Also he attacked the Catholic Church in his Kulturkampf or struggle for civilization. Then he ditched the liberals and began to persecute socialists when the Social Democratic Party elected 12 deputies to the Reichstag (lower Parliament). He had Parliament pass and antisocialist law and tried to persuade workers away from socialism by enacting social welfare legislation. But the Social Democratic Party was still growing.

William II: The new German emperor fired Bismarck as chancellor to pursue his own policies.

Social Democrats: Bismarck was against anti-capitalism, antinationalism, and anti-monarchical socialists. He outlawed the Social Democratic Party and limited socialist meeting and publications, but they could still run for Reichstag. However, the Social Democratic Party was still growing.

Alexander III: He was the Russian son of the assassinated Alexander II. He thought reform was a mistake and he made exceptional measures by expanding the secret police, persecuting revolutionary groups, social reformers, and constitutional monarchists, he put areas of Russia under martial law if the govt suspected treason, and ended the zemstvos. When he died, his weak son, Nicholas II also preserved the tsar power. However, industrialization made the tsar’s approach unrealistic.

Russification: Also, Alexander III pursued a radical Russification program of the many nationalities that made up Russia. Only the Russian language was accepted and Russification angered national groups and made new sources of opposition to tsarist police.

Chapter 24:
An Age of Modernity, Anxiety, and Imperialism (1894-1914)

Toward the Modern Consciousness: Intellectual and Cultural Developments
Marie Curie: studied at the University of Paris, first woman to win two Nobel Prizes. w/ husband Pierre discovered the element radium and said that radiation comes from within the atom which is not solid. The atom is a small world containing subatomic particles (electrons and protons) that behaved in a random fashion. Died of leukemia b/c of radioactive work. Became the central theme of new physics.

Albert Einstein: German patent officer who worked in Switzerland. Published “The Electro-Dynamics of Moving Bodies” that contained his theory of relativity which states that time and space are not absolute but relative to the observer and all part of the four-dimensional space-time continuum. Meaning time and space are simply variables like everything else. Matter is energy, E=mc2 matter = mass x (velocity of light)2

Nietzsche: glorified the irrational. Said that Western bourgeois society was incapable of creativity and blamed Christianity for intellectual slavery. God is dead so we should not believe in him. “super man” the strongest is the one who overcomes the rules of society, realizing that truth and morality do not exist. Superior intellects must free themselves, create their own values and lead the masses. Rejected political democracy, social reform, and universal suffrage.

Henri Bergson: French philosopher against reason, rational and scientific thought provided useful knowledge but did not give the ultimate reality which could never be analyzed. An attempt to analyze gives us a description but not the reality we experienced.

Georges Sorel: French theorist that combined ideas of Nietzsche and Bergson and created revolutionary socialism. Advocated violent action as the only way to achieve socialism. Used general strike to destroy that capitalist society. Believed the strike would inspire workers to take action and revolt. Afterwards, thought workers should be ruled by small group of elites
(incapable of ruling themselves – too stupid)

Sigmund Freud: Developed idea of psychoanalysis, The Interpretation of Dreams (1900). Said that human behavior is determined by unconscious. Repression – keeping unfortunate past events in the unconscious; these repressed memories affect our current behavior (true feelings that are repressed will slip up) and surface during dream interpretation and hypnosis. Humans struggle with aspects of their minds; Id – desire for pleasure & avoid pain (“pleasure principle”); Ego – the seat of reason, realizes people must use self-control to live in a society (“reality principle”); Superego – represents the moral values of society.

social Darwinism: invented by Herbert Spencer (1820-1903). Darwin’s ideas of organic evolution applied to society that promoted “survival of the fittest” when the weak die off, society gets stronger. Economics – the more ruthless, the more fit they are. Nationalism – war separates the weak from the strong. Racism (Germany is a great example) believed that Aryan (European) race created Western culture. Must fight to save it from lesser races (Jews, Negroes, Orientals) The lighter your skin, the better your race/nation. Gender – men better than women (stronger). Criminology – potential crooks identifiable from appearance.

“Life of Jesus”: written by French Catholic scholar, Ernst Renan where he questions the accuracy of the Bible. Presented a radically different picture of Jesus – not the son of God, he is a human being whose value was based on his life and teachings. Pope Pius IX: pope of Catholic Church took a stand against modern ideas. Issued a papal encyclical called the Syllabus of Errors where he condemned nationalism, socialism, religious toleration, and freedom of speech and press.

Pope Leo XIII: permitted the teaching of evolution as a hypothesis in Catholic schools and responded to the challenges of modernization in the economic and social spheres. In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum he upheld the individuals right to private property but also criticized capitalism for poverty and degrading the working classes. Condemned Marxist socialism for its materialistic and anti-religious foundations. Said Catholics should form social parties and labor unions to help the workers. Naturalism: accepts the material world as real and believes literature should be realistic, like realism, but extra pessimism. Writers contributed to the understanding of the world by writing about social problems (no happy endings). Leo Tolstoy (Russia 1828-1910) – War and Peace wrote about Napoleon’s invasion of Russia as a fatalistic view of history. Emile Zola--dissecting and analyzing like a scientist--influenced by Darwin--Rougon-Macquart. Dostoevsky Crime and Punishment and Brothers Karamazov believed major problem of his age was loss of spiritual belief.

Symbolism: reacted against realism, known for poetry. Objective knowledge of world was impossible; W.B. Yeats. Poet’s who claimed that art shouldn’t be a representation of the world, rather a bunch of symbols that revealed what was going on in the artist’s head. Take what you want from it. WB Yeats and, Paul Verlaine, and Arthur Rimbaud are classic examples of this movement. Rimbaud impacted a young Bob Dylan in the early 1960s.

Impressionism: (paint based on your first impression), rejection of rules and principles, paint what you observe. The most obvious characteristic of Impressionism was an attempt to accurately and objectively record visual reality in terms of transient effects of light and color. Small brush strokes, unmixed primary colors simulated light’s reflection.

Post-Impressionism: More attention paid to structure and form, subjective reality, beginning of modern art. Breaking away from representing the “real” world, whatever that is. Modern artists capture the “Real” world in two ways: They either distort it for emotion (expressionism) or abandon it entirely (abstract).

Expressionism: Intention is not to reproduce a subject accurately, but instead to portray it in such a way as to express the inner state of the artist.
Many expressionist reflected their disillusion with modern society. Originated in Germany

Cubism: In Cubism the subject is broken up and reoriented, showing several different perspectives. Cubists focus on geometric shapes, treating nature in terms of the cylinder, the sphere and the cone. Subjects in Cubists paintings are often hard to recognize. Les Demoiselles d’Avignon--1097--Picasso

abstract painting: Wassily Kandinsky; complete break from the outside world/reality. The painting represent nothing outside of itself. On White II--1923

Claude Debussy: Elusive moods and haunting sensations. Debussy’s musical compositions were often inspired by the visual arts and poetry.

Igor Stravinsky: Ballets based on Russian folk tales (such as Petrushka). Unusual dancing, pulsating rhythms, sharp dissonances. Irrational and emotional. Quite hip.

Politics: New Directions and New Uncertainties
The Pankhursts: Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women’s Social and Political Union in 1903 with her daughters which enrolled mostly middle and upper class women. Realized the value of the media and used unusual publicity stunts to call attention to their demands. “suffragettes” took a militant approach, they threw eggs at officials, chained themselves to lampposts, smashed windows, burned buildings, refused to work, and went on hunger strikes.

anti-Semitism: Jews are portrayed as the murderers of Jesus and are subjected to mob violence; rights are restricted, physically separated from Christians in ghettos. Jews were granted legal equality in 19th century and were later admitted to full citizenship. Emancipation allowed them to leave the ghettos and leave their “Jewishness” behind. Austrian Empire and Germany had anti-Semitism strongest in Vienna.

Zionism: founded by Theodor Herzl in 1898. Goal to give Jews a Palestinian homeland.

David Lloyd George: orator from Wales moved by the misery of coal miners. The National Insurance Act of 1911 provided benefits for workers in case of sickness and unemployment. Lloyd George increased the tax burden on the wealthy classes to achieve social reform.

Alfred Dreyfus: Demonstrates a Europe-wide anti-Semitism Alfred Dreyfus (wealthy & ambitious Jewish French army officer). Accused of selling military secrets to Germany. Military court condemned him to life imprisonment. All while a mob outside yelled “death to the Jews.” Dreyfus was innocent – evidence emerged after the trial. Dreyfus pardoned in 1899 & exonerated in 1906

Pan-German League: stressed German nationalism and advocated imperialism as a tool to overcome social divisions and unite all classes. They were also anti-Semitic and denounced Jews as the destroyers of the national community.

“Bloody Sunday”: Jan. 1905, 200,000 protesters go to Winter Palace in St. Petersburg. Several hundred killed by police. Leads to widespread strikes and formation of unions The New Imperialism
“the white man’s burden: the belief that the superiority of their civilization obligated Europeans to impose their practices on supposedly primitive nonwhites. (make nonwhite people white) Europe’s “responsibility” to “civilize” the “savages”

Cecil Rhodes: founded diamond and gold companies that enabled him to get control of a territory north of Transvaal which he named Rhodesia. Champion of British expansion. One if his goals was to create a series of British colonies from the Cape to Cairo that was all linked by a railroad. Had imperialist ambitions that led him to his downfall.

King Leopold II: Belgium, rushed into the pursuit of empire in Africa; profit>progress. Brutal actions to the Africans that were even condemned by other Europeans. Created the International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa and established Belgian settlements in the Congo.

Boxer Rebellion: “boxers” was the popular name given to Chinese who belonged to a secret organization called the Society of the Harmonious Fists, whose aim was to push the foreigners out of China. Murdered foreign missionaries, Chinese that converted to Christianity, railroad workers, foreign businessmen, and the German envoy to Beijing.

Indian National Congress: formed in 1883; educated Indians were beginning to seek self-government. In response to British violence and insensitivity, Indians were demanding complete independence.

Gandhi: India’s “Great Soul” became the emotional leader of India’s struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Unlike many other nationalist leaders, Gandhi rejected the materialistic culture of the West and urged his followers to return to the native traditions of the Indian village. Dressed in the simple Indian dhoti instead of the traditional Western fashion. Peaceful policy of civil disobedience.

Chapter 25:
The Beginning of the Twentieth-Century Crisis, War and Revolution International Rivalry and the Coming of War

The Balkans: An area in the Ottoman empire that the enemies Austria and Russia, who used to be allied with Germany in the Three Emperor’s League, battled over for Balkan land. Austria wanted to expand and Russia wanted a shorter pathway to Constantinople and the Mediterranean. Germany/Bismarck didn’t want a conflict so they were mutual. In 1876, the Balkan states, Serbia and Montenegro, declared war on the Ottomans but lost. So, Russia beat the Ottomans and with the Treaty of San Stefano they built a large Bulgarian state that worked with Russia, upsetting the balance of power.

The Congress of Berlin: In the summer of 1878, Bismarck held this congress to end the Treaty of San Stefano humiliated Russia, limited the size of Bulgaria, and returned Ottoman land. Also, the Balkan states; Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania, were independent. Other Balkan areas like Bosnia and Herzegovina were under Austrian rule but not owned by them.

The Triple Alliance: In 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary, & Italy allied after Russia ended the Three Emperor’s League. They were all against France & liked the EXISTING political order. But Bismarck was still nice to Russia & he signed the Reinsurance Treaty with them to avoid a Russian-French alliance & a two-front war. But when the German Emperor William II fired Bismarck, Germany got a new foreign policy.

The Triple Entente: After Bismarck was fired and William ended the Reinsurance Treaty, Russia, France, and Britain formed a loose confederation called the Triple Entente. They were against the Triple Alliance and Europe became more inflexible and unwilling to compromise. WWI was caused during these two groups battle over the Ottoman Empire.

The Road to War

Militarism: a policy of aggressive military preparedness in particular, the large armies based on mass conscription and complex, inflexible plans for mobilization that most European nations had before World War I. OR as armies grew big, military leaders’ (who came up with complex plans to become quickly ready for battle) influence grew. Their plans could never change.

The Black Hand: The assassination of the Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia in June 1914 was carried out by the Bosnian activist who worked for the Black Hand. The Black Hand was a Serbian terrorist organization dedicated to the creation of a pan Slavic kingdom.

The “blank check”: Emperor William II and his chancellor, Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg assured Austria-Hungary that they could rely on Germany’s full support even if it resulted in a war against Russia. This followed Ferdinand’s murder by a Serbian.

The Schlieffen Plan: The German General Alfred von Schleiffen made a plan based on the two front war against the allied Russia and France. His plan was for minimal troop deployment against Russia while most of the German army would invade W. France through Belgium. Germany declared war on France and asked Belgium if German troops could pass through their land to get to France. But the British declared war on Germany since they wanted to maintain world power.

The War

The First Battle of the Marne: Following the failed Schleiffen Plan, the Germans crossed Belgium and stopped at the Marne River. The Germans were close to victory but the British had arrived swiftly. The British and French (under General Joseph Joffre) stopped the Germans at the First Battle of the Marne. The Germans retreated but the French were too tired to gain an advantage. The war turned into a stalemate, or a tie.

Trench warfare: After the tie of the First Battle of the Marne, the Western Front had trenches from the English Channel to Switzerland to keep both sides in the same position for 4 years. It’s warfare in which the opposing forces attack and counterattack from a relatively permanent system of trenches protected by barbed wire characteristic of World War I. Life in the trenches was dirty, boring, dangerous, and full of the dead. Opposing armies went by the live and let live motto so there were no attacks during breakfast or bathroom breaks. In order to pass time, humorous magazines like the BEF Times were made.

The Battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes: The Russian army moved into E. Germany but was defeated at the Battles of Tannenberg on August 30 and the Masurian Lakes on Sept. 15. These battles established the military reputations of the commanding general Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff. The Russians were no longer a threat to Germany.

Verdun and the Somme: A battle.

New military technology: Battlefields were hellish landscapes of barbed wire, shell holes, mud, trenches, injured and dying men, poison gas, and machine guns produced new deaths. They used Africans too. Now airplanes were weaponized and flammable German zeppelins were used to bomb London. Also, the British tanks pushed back Germans were not very effective but still worked. 

The Central Powers: Consisting of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire after Italy ditched them for more land. Bulgaria tried to join the Central Powers but withdrew after a bad campaign in Gallopoli in Balkan. Also had E. African troops.

The Allies: Made up of the French, British, Italian, and Russians. Then as it turned global, the British officer, Lawrence of Arabia told the Arabs to go against their Ottoman overlords. Then British Egyptians destroyed the rest of the Ottomans. Britain had India, Australia, and New Zealand (they wanted New Guinea back). Also, the French recruited Western and Eastern African troops. Then Japan joined the Allies to gain possession of China and islands in the Pacific. The USA tried to stay neutral but eventually joined the Allies.

Unrestricted submarine warfare: The naval conflict b/w Germany and Britain began when Germany crushed Britain at the Battle of Jutland. So, Britain blockaded Germany, causing Germany to use submarine warfare. Germany called the area around the British Isles a war zone and threatened to torpedo any ship caught in it. After the Germans killed innocent American travelers they took a break but then restarted in 1917 when Germany wanted to starve Britain and thought they could crush any American who would intervene. So America joined the war.


Georges Clemenceau (last section “The Peace Settlement”): A French war govt found a strong leader in Clemenceau who established clear civilian control of a total war govt. Towards the end of the war, lenient French policies ended and basic civil liberties were suppressed.

Defence of the Realm Act: British Parliament passed this to allow public authorities to arrest dissenters as traitors. It was later extended to authorize public officials to censor newspapers by deleting opinionated material and even suspended newspapers.

David Lloyd George (last section “The Peace Settlement”): A Brit who used the production of munitions (military weapons) in his Ministry of Munitions to ensure that private industry would make weapons with little profit. He became the British prime minister thought that after the war there would no longer be class conflict but he was wrong. Factory owners profited from the war and inflation (full employment and scarce consumer goods caused the price to raise). The unskilled workers and middle class (stable salary) were affected by inflation.

War and Revolution

Tsar Nicholas II: After the failed Revolution of 1905, the Russian tsar relied on the army and bureaucracy to uphold his regime. He was the only European to take personal charge of the armed forces even w/o training. The govt distrusted the people and peasant discontent spread. The liberals and middle class still wanted a constitutional monarchy.

Rasputin: Nicholas II’s wife Alexandra followed Rasputin, a Siberian peasant who was seen as a holy man b/c he stopped the bleeding of her hemophiliac son, Alexis. This made him a power behind the throne and interfered in govt affairs. As military and economic disasters happened, aristocrats/peasants began to hate the tsars. Even conservative aristocrats who like the monarchy decided to kill Rasputin, leading to the fall of the tsarist regime. The March Revolution: Many strikes broke out in Petrograd (St. Petersburg), specifically on March 8, 1910 (normally International Women’s Day) many factory women marched through the city demanding peace and bread and “down with autocracy”. Other workers joined and they shut down the factories for a day. So Nicholas ordered his troops to kill the crowd but the soldiers soon joined the strikers. The Duma (legislature) which the tsar tried to end, met again to gain govt responsibility and these moderate Constitutional Democrats made a provisional govt when the king quit. They wanted a parliamentary democracy, universal suffrage, civil equality, and an 8 hour work day.

Soviets: Councils of workers' and soldiers' deputies formed throughout Russia in 1917 played an important role in the Bolshevik Revolution. They represented more radical interest of the lower classes and were made up of socialists (i.e.Marxist Social Democratic Party which later divided into the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks).

Bolsheviks: A small faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party who were led by Lenin and dedicated to violent revolution seized power in Russia in 1917 and were subsequently renamed the Communists. They came under the leadership of Vladimir Ulianov or V.I. Lenin. Wanted to end capitalism. The Constituent Assembly leaders were chosen by universal suffrage and the Bolsheviks lost to the Socialist Revoutionaries. They were renamed Communists.

Mensheviks: Part of the Marxist Social Democratic Party. They wanted the Social Democrats to be a mass electoral socialist party based on a Western mode. They were willing to cooperate temporarily in a parliamentary democracy while working towards a socialist state.

V.I. Lenin: He was a lawyer turned enemy of tsarist Russia when his older brother was killed for trying to kill the tsar. He was a Marxist who formed the illegal Union for the Liberation of the Working Class and was arrested/shipped to Siberia. When he was released he moved to Switzerland and became leader of the Bolshevik wing of the Russian Social Democratic Party. He and other Bolsheviks wanted to create a chaotic Russia but was shipped to Finland. 

“April Theses”: In Lenin’s “April Theses” he made a plan for a revolution according to Marxism. He said that the soviets of soldiers, workers, and peasants already had power and the Bolsheviks must take their power to overthrow this temporary govt.

“Peace, land, bread”: Sums up the Bolshevik program of wanting to end the war, redistribute the land to peasants, to change factories from capitalism to committees of workers, and lower govt power by giving it to soviets. Also, “worker control of production” and “all power to the soviets”.

Alexander Kerensky: A Socialist Revolutionary who was prime minister of the provisional govt. When General Kornilov wanted to take power from Petrograd, Kerensky released the imprisoned Bolsheviks and turned to the soviets for help. Now was a time to gain power from the provisional govt.

Leon Trotsky: A supporter of Lenin, passionate revolutionary, and chairman of the Petrograd soviet. With his help, the Bolsheviks took power of Petrogard under the soviet name and was recognized by the all-Russian Congress of Soviets. Lenin then made the new Soviet govt, Council of the People’s Commissars and he was the leader. In the Civil War, Trotsky disciplined his army and got results.

Zhentodel: Led by revolutionary socialist, Alexandra Kollontai, she wanted to give women/kids healthcare, made marriage a civil act, legalized divorce, made men=women, and allowed abortions. Her Zhentodel is a women’s bureau within the Communist Party that explained the new social order. Many memebers were killed by angry men who DIDN’T want to free their wives/kids. Her reforms were undone later.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: The new Communist govt signed this treaty with Germany. Russia gave up E. Poland, Ukraine, Finland, & Baltic provinces. Lenin thought that this didn’t make a difference b/c spreading socialist revolution would make the treaty unimportant. Lenin wanted peace but a civil war began.

Russian Civil War: Tsarists, bourgeois, aristocratic liberals, and anti-Leninist socialist (like Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries) hated the Bolsheviks. The Bolshevik (Red) Army fought Siberia, Ukraine, and the Baltic. It was red v. white (anti-Bolsheviks). Red beat Ukraine. Soviets captured the tsar family and murdered them. The Red Army was successful b/c it was disciplined by Leon Trotsky.

War communism: Lenin's policy of nationalizing banks and most industries, ordered the peasants' to produce grain during the civil war in Russia, and centralizing the state under Bolshevik control. It ensured supplies for the Red Army.

The Cheka: A new Red secret police replaced the old tsarist secret police. The Red Terror made by the Cheka wanted to destroy any haters of the new regime, i.e. the bourgeoisie, proletarians. 

German Communist Party: Led by Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg, these radical, left-wing socialist minorities who hated the war made this German Communist Party in 1918. Two parallel govts were made; the parliamentary republic for the Social Democrats and the revolutionary socialist republic for the radicals/communists. They tried to control the govt but the moderate socialist, Ebert and his army (Free Corps) crushed the rebels and killed their leaders. The Peace Settlement

Wilson’s “Fourteen Points”: The American president, Woodrow Wilson, submitted to the US Congress his 14 Points that he thought justified the enormous military struggle and lasting peace. They were about self-determination (the doctrine that the people of a given territory or a particular nationality should have the right to determine their own government and political future), less weapons, open agreements, etc. He advocated for new world order based on democracy and international cooperation.

Paris Peace Conference: The purpose of the meeting was to establish the terms of the peace after World War. Unlike Wilson, other states were guided by practical ideas and still followed secret agreements, even if they went against self-determination. National interests also complicated things. British prime minister, David Lloyd George, won an electoral victory after making the Germans pay for this dumb war. The French Georges Clemenceau wanted national security and revenge on Germany too. He wanted to demilitarize Germany, make them pay $$ for the war, and build a buffer state (Rhineland) b/w France and Germany.The Allies enlarged each eastern state at the expense of Germany and Bolshevik Russia to prevent the spread of Bolshevik revolution. 27 nations were represented. Wilson (USA), Clemenceau (France), Lloyd George (G.B), and Italy were the “Big 4”. Germany wasn’t invited and Russia was busy with a civil war.
self-determination: The doctrine that the people of a given territory or a particular nationality should have the right to determine their own government and political future. This was in Wilson’s 14 points.

The League of Nations: Wilson wanted a league of nations to prevent future wars but Lloyd George and Clemenceau wanted to punish Germany. So they compromised and made territorial arrangements, gave French security, they could fix bad ideas later, they didn’t make a Rhineland but made a defensive alliance with G.B. and U.S. But the US Senate refused this alliance and made the US pull out of the League of Nations. So Britain withdrew too and France was alone and against Germany,

The Treaty of Versailles: There were five separate treaties with the losers--Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottomans. The Versailles Treaty with Germany which was rather harsh (but NOT as harsh as the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk).They were mad about Article 231 or the War-Guilt Clause. Germany had to cut its army down to 100,000 men, cut back the navy, and eliminate the air force. Germany lost Alsace and Lorraine to France and part of Prussia to new Poland.

Reparations: Payments made by a defeated nation after a war to compensate another nation for damage sustained as a result of the war; required from Germany after World War I.

Mandates: A system established after World War I whereby a nation officially administered a territory (mandate) on behalf of the League of Nations. Thus, France administered Lebanon and Syria as mandates, and Britain administered Iraq and Palestine.

War-guilt clause: The clause in the treaty of Versailles that declared that Germany (with Austria) was responsible for starting World War I and ordered Germany to pay reparations for the damage the Allies had suffered as a result of the war.

Total war (there are three pages on this, be thorough.): Warfare in which all of a nation's resources, including civilians at home as well as soldiers in the field, are mobilized for the war effort. The need to organize masses and materials for war led to a centralized govt, economic regimentation, and manipulation of public opinion to keep the war effort going. Since the war was SUPPOSED to be short, the countries didn’t plan ahead and now had to draft people instead of having volunteers. Free market capitalism was temporarily stopped while govts experimented w/ price, wage, rents, rations, imports/exports, and nationalization (the process of converting a business or industry from private ownership to government control and ownership). Now there were planned economies put in charge by govt agencies. There was a small diff. b/w soldiers and civilians. Germany was good at the planned economy b/c Walter Rathenau (head of G.E. Company) organized the War Raw Material Board which gave certain materials to the places that needed it most. But the Germans sucked at rations, leading to food shortages. German military generals, Hindenburg and Ludendorff controlled the govt now and were dictators who made all males from age 17 to 60 to work to help the war in the Auxiliary Service Law. Britain tried to win the war by staying liberal (limited govt in economy) but they forced the govt to take a more active role in the economy. Also Britain rationed food and imposed rent controls. But the unsuccessful French could not form a total war economy b/c of the disagreement b/w the civil and military authorities struggled over who was in charge of the war (see Clemenceau). Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Italy were unsuccessful since these autocratic empires had backward economies that couldn’t make enough weapons to fight. So unarmed soldiers were sent into battle and used their dead comrades weapons. Also all their minorities made it hard to form a bond of unity. Italy lacked public enthusiasm and industrial resources. Strikes increased as patriotism decreased. Liberals and socialists were against the war wanted peace resolutions w/o any territorial gain but they were ignored. Police powers were extended to put down this internal dissent and strikes. Wartime govts used propaganda to arouse enthusiasm for the war. Total war ended unemployment and the enthusiastic patriotism of workers was rewarded with a greater acceptance of trade unions and allowed them to participate in govt decisions. Labor benefited from bargaining and trade union acceptance. For women, they took over clerical, banking, and physical labor (chimney sweeps and truck drivers). But many men resisted and women demanded equal pay to men. They were eventually ALMOST equal but their jobs were only temporary. After the war, German, American, and Austrian women had the right to vote. Many junior officers (aristocracy) and unskilled workers (peasants) were killed in the war.