Ap Outline History of Russia

3)The Development of Russia
a)Eastern Slavs converted by missionaries from Byzantine Empire to Orthodox Christianity. Eastern Orthodoxy rejects pope, but else wise is similar to Rom. Cat.
b)Loose but real political unification of eastern Slavic territories under single prince and dynasty
c)Feudal division into boyard nobility and commoner peasantry
d)After death of Prince Iaroslav the Wise, Kievan principality disintegrated into competing political units- 1504
e)The Mongol Yoke and the Rise of Moscow
i)Slavs remained united by Mongol conquest of the Kievan principality ii)Mongols were nomadic tribes, Chinggis Khan 1 of greatest conquerors
(1)Subdues China, turned Westward, Mongol Army (Golden Horde) conquered ruled Slavs for over 200 years- Mongol Yoke
(2)Slavic princes forced to submit, pay tribute, give slaves, united Slavs iii)Beginning with Alexander Nevesky in 1252, previously insignificant princes of Moscow became adept at serving Mongols. Put down uprisings, collected taxes, became princes, eventually able to destroy princely rivals and replace the khan as supreme ruler Muscovite princes
(1)Ivan I- built up large fortune + increased influence by loaning money to other princes to pay Mongol taxes
(a)Rival price of Tver organized revolt against Mongols 1327, Ivan led Russian-Mongol army and destroyed Tver- made Ivan tax collector
(2)Ivan III- process of gathering territories around Moscow completed (included wealthy, crucial Novgorod region), completely princely authority
(a)Prince of Moscow became unique, absolute ruler—tsar. Absolute power and autocracy developed b/c Ivan stopped acknowledging khan as supreme ruler, + after fall of Constantinople to Turks in 1453 tsars saw themselves as heirs of caesars and Orthodox Christianity
(i)Al other Europe heretics, “holy Russia”, “third Rome”
(b)Noble boyars began losing power and influence- Ivan conquered Novgorod, confiscated 80% of land for himself, gave remainder to newly emerging service nobility—held tsars land on condition they serve in the tsar’s army
f)Tsar and People to 1689
i)Ivan IV- rise of service nobility accelerated, took Anastasia of Romanov family for his wife, declared war on remnants of Mongol power ii)Wars against khanates added territory to Russia, Ivan abolished distinction between hereditary boyar private property and land granted for service—all had to serve tsar in order to hold any land iii)After unsuccessful war with Polish-Lithuanian state + death of wife, struck down ancient Muscovite boyars with a reign of terror
(1)Leading boyars, relatives, peasants, and servants executed en masse by special crops (forerunner to secret police), estates broken up and given to lower service nobility—were dependent on autocrat iv)As nobles demanded more from peasants b/c of depopulation, many fled to east and south and formed Cossacks- outlaw army beyond reach of tsar
(1)Solution was to tie peasants to land and noble, in turn bound to tsar
v)Urban traders and artisans bound to town and jobs, tsar assumed owned Russia’s trade and industry
(1)Urban classes had no security in work or property, dependent on tsar
(2)IF business became property, often taken over by tsar and made a royal monopoly—checked growth of middle class (as opposed to in W. Europe where capitalist middle class gained strength and security thru their private property) vi)Ivan’s system of autocracy and compulsory service struck foreign observers forcibly- German Herberstein wrote ppl consider themselves slaves of princes, French Jean Bodin struck vii)Death of Ivan 1584 resulted in violent power struggle, confusion, son Theodore died without an heir in 1598 viii)Invading Swiss and Poles, Cossack bands led by Ivan Bolotnikov rallied peasants and killed nobles- called for true tsar ix)Nobles crushed Rebellion 1613 Michael Romanov elected new hereditary tsar-re-established tsarist autocracy + military obligations on nobles relaxed, successor pious Alexis continued trend
x)Second mass upheaval, Russian Orthodox church split
(1)Religious reforms introduced 1652 by purist patriarch Nikon, wanted “corrupt” practices in line with Greek Orthodox model, church supported but religious common people resisted
(2)Great numbers left church, as “Old Believers” were persecuted
(3)No popular support, church depended on state for its authority xi)Cossacks revolted against state, under Stkena Razin attracted great army, killed landlords and govt officials, wanted freedom from oppression
(1)Rebellions defeated by govt, scared upper classes tightened screws of serfdom further to maintain power of tsar, became principal obligation
g)The Reforms of Peter the Great
i)Interested primarily in military power, redress defeats of tsar’s armies ii)Continued tsarist tradition of territorial expansion- gained Ukraine from Poland, Siberia, --- came to complete power in 1689 iii)Army made up cavalry of boyars and service nobility, foot soldiers second, not like permanent Western standing armies with rifles= very expensive iv)Alliance with Austria and Poland against Ottoman empire, traveled to Western capitals, impressed by growing English and Dutch power
v)After return, entered into secret alliance with Denmark and elector of Saxony (king of Poland) to attack Sweden- very powerful in N. Europe, scattered lands and young king made it seem ripe for attack
(1)Charles XII surprised peter with his military genius, defeated Denmark in 1700 then proceeded to attack Russia vi)Great Northern War 1700-1721- suffering defeat and crisis, Peter responded with measures to increase state power, strengthen army, victory
(1)Every nobleman required to serve in army or civil administration for life
(2)Created schools and universities to produce skilled technicians and experts
(3)Five years of compulsory education away from home for noblemen
(4)Military-civilian bureaucracy with 14 ranks, meritocracy
(5)Sought out talented foreigners and placed them in his service
(6)Commoners played larger role- established standing army of over 200,000 made up of peasants and officers from nobility
(7)Taxes raised threefold, serfs assigned to work in factories in mines- owned mostly by state, nearly all worked for military vii)Russian victory- Peter’s superior resources and larger population crushed small army of Sweden’s Charles XII- Battle at Poltava, Ukraine 1709
(1)Russia annexed Estonia, Latvia, became great Black Sea and Eur. power
(2)B/c of desire to use Western technology to strengthen army, Westerns and W. ideas spread to Russia
(3)New class of educated Russians emerged, gap btwn enserfed peasantry and educated nobility widened
(4)Idea of state interest as opposed to tsar’s interest developed- explanations of decrees to gain support of populace
(5)Built on service obligations of old Muscovy

The Growth of St. Petersburg
i)1700 @ start of Great Northern War did not exist, 1702 captured by Peter the Great and made into new capital rather than ancient Moscow ii)Peter Island, new ports and shipyards for the Baltic coast iii)After victory at Poltava in 1709- decreed his ppl to build a city that would equal any in the world, had to be Western, Baroque, “window on Europe” iv)Peter wanted comfortable modern city with broad avenues, houses in uniform line, parks, canals for drainage, bridges, street lighting
v)Buildings had to conform to architectural regulations set by govt vi)Each social group- nobility, merchants, artisans- was to leave in a certain section vii)Russian autocracy to build capital- peasants bore heaviest burdens, forced to 25-40 thousand to labor without pay- peasants hated it viii)Nobles forced to built costly houses and palaces in city and live in them most of the year, merchants and artisans forced to pay for avenues, parks, canals, bridges—costly b/c city was built on a swamp ix)By Peter’s death in 1725 at least 6,000 houses, govt buildings, under women rulers of 18th century expanded and blossomed
x)Youngest daughter Elizabeth named Bartolomeo Rastrelli chief architect, combined Russian and Italian styles w. very colorful style, Winter Palace xi)By 1782 one of Europe’s largest cities with 300,000+ inhabitants

1)The Modernization of Russia
a)The “Great Reforms”
i)1850s Russia was poor agrarian society with little industry, serfdom basic social institution with serfs sold, worked on lords terms, forced to serve army ii)Crimean War (1832-1856) pitted Russia against France, GB, Ottomans over Christian shrines, Russian lost it fallen behind industrialized Western nations, military disaster forced Alexander II for social change and modernization
(1)Serfs freed in 1861, collective ownership of land by freed peasants made it hard for individuals to improve methods, thus effects of reform limited
(2)1864 zemstvo created- local govt institution elected by three-class system, was executive council that dealt with local problems
(3)Reforms to legal system- independent courts, censorship relaxed
b)The Industrialization of Russia
i)Until 20th century strides toward modernization had been economic rather than political, industry and transport were seen as vital to military
(1)Gov’t encouraged and subsidized private rail companies, enabled export of grain and earned money for industrialization
(2)Industrial growth led to territorial expansion in south and east ii)1881 Alexander II assassinated and reform came to an end, new tsar Alexander III was a reactionary iii)Political modernization froze but economic modernization increased b/c of nationalism after Crimean War, and under finance minister Sergei Witte
(1)Gov’t build state-owned railroads, Trans-Siberian line, protective tariffs to build industry, money “gold standard” to strengthen finances
(2)Witte encouraged foreigners to use capital and technology to build factories in Russia, modern steal and coal industry built, petroleum refining
c)The Revolution of 1905
i)Russia had began imperializing, Japan launched surprise attack and beat Russia in 1905, military disaster brought political upheaval at home ii)Business + professional classes wanted to match economic reform w/ political modernization to change absolutist monarchy to liberal, representative regime
(1)Factory workers had work grievances, organized in illegal labor movement, peasants gained little from era of reform, national sentiment strong iii)Revolution of 1905 began in January 1905 when protesters in St. Petersburg sent petition to tsar Nicholas II, troops opened fire on “Bloody Sunday”
(1)Outlawed parties came into open, strikes, peasant uprisings, minority revolts, troop mutinies- gov’t capitulated, in October Manifesto tsar promised full civil rights, popularly elected Duma iv)On eve of first Duma 1906 govt issued new constitution, the Fundamental laws
(1)Tsar retained power, absolute veto over Duma, tsar appt all ministers
(2)Liberals saw Fundamental Laws as step backward, refused to cooperate with Tsar’s ministers, tsar dismissed Duma
(3)Second Duma elected was more radical, again dismissed by tsar
v)New electoral law gave propertied classes more power at expense of workers, peasants, minorities, led to majority in new Duma vi)In 1914 Russia was partially modernized conservative constitutional monarchy with a peasant-based but industrializing economy
2)The Russian Revolution
a)The Fall of Imperial Russia
i)Patriotic enthusiasm when Russia entered World War I in 1914 under Nicholas II, 1915 Russian casualties high but peasant army did not collapse ii)Duma and local govt took lead, set up committees to coordinate defense, industry, transport, agriculture to mobilize for total war iii)Main problem was leadership, Nicholas II wished to maintain supreme royal power, failed to form partnership with his citizens to fight more effective war, came to rely on old bureaucratic apparatus, rejecting popular involvement and resisting calls to share power iv)Duma, educated MC, masses became critical, demands for more democratic and responsive govt exploded in Duma 1915, Progressive bloc formed calling for new govt responsible to Duma instead of tsar, tsar took over army control
v)With star at front, govt taken over by Tsarina Alexandra who tried to rule absolutely with advisor Rasputin in 1916
(1)Rasputin murdered by members of aristocracy, food shortages worsened, morale declined, riots in Petrograd (St. Petersburg)
(2)Troop discipline broke down and joined revolution, Duma declared provision govt March 12, 1917, 3 days later Nicholas abdicated
b)The Provisional Government
i)March revolution joyfully accepted throughout country, provisional govt quickly established equality before the law, freedom of religion, speech, assembly, right of unions to organize and strike, and other liberal programs ii)Leaders rejected social revolution, govt under Alexander Kereknsky refused to confiscate large landholdings to peasants, first priority was July war offensive iii)From first day provisional govt had to share power with the Petrograd Soviet of Workers and Soldiers Deputies, saw itself was grassroots revolutionary democracy, issued its own radical orders weakening provisional government
(1)Army Order No. 1 stripped officers of duty and placed power in hands of elected soldier committees, led to collapse of army discipline, soldiers returned home to steal land, anarchy during summer 1917
c)Lenin and the Bolshevik Revolution
i)Lenin studied Marxian doctrines intensely, developed own interpretations
(1)Stressed capitalism could be destroyed only by violent revolution, denounced all revisionist theories of peaceful evolution
(2)Under certain conditions socialist revolution possible even in backward country like Russia where industrial working class was small but poor peasants could be revolutionaries
(3)Necessity of a highly disciplined worker’s party under control of dedicated elite intellectuals and full-time revolutionaries ii)At Russian Social Democratic Labor party meetings Russian Marxian socialists split into two factions- Lenin’s Bolsheviks with small, disciplined elite party, and Mensheviks who favored more democratic party with mass membership iii)After returning from neutral Switzerland with German help in 1917, Lenin attacked at once against cooperation with “bourgeois” provisional govt of liberals and moderate socialists iv)Lenin’s attempt to seize power in July failed, went into hiding, but dispute between Kerensky and General Lavr Kornilov lost Kerensky all respect with army, the only force that could have saved him and democratic Russia govt
d)Trotsky and the Seizure of Power
i)Thru summer Bolsheviks won support of workers and majority in Petrograd Soviet, Lenin supporter Leon Trotsky executed Bolshevik power seizure
(1)Trotsky convinced Petrograd Soviet to form special-military revolutionary committee with him as leader, military power passed to Bolshevik hands
(2)Bolsheviks reduced opposition to coup by taking power in name of more popular and democratic Soviets when provision govt seized ii)Bolsheviks came to power b/c 1917 democracy had given way to anarchy and power vacuum, in Lenin and Trotsky Bolsheviks had determined and superior leadership that tsar and provisional govt lacked, Bolsheviks appealed to soldiers and urban workers exhausted by war and eager for socialism
e)Dictatorship and Civil War
i)Lenin kept power by profiting from developments over which he and the Bolsheviks had no control
(1)Law giving land to peasants merely approved what the peasants were already doing, mainly seizing land in 1917
(2)Urban workers wanted direct control of factories, Lenin ratified this ii)Lenin acknowledged defeat by Germany, only realistic goal peace at any price
(1)Germany demanded Soviet gov’t give up all western territories, areas inhabited by non-Russians who had been conquered by tsarist expansion
(2)At first would not accept such great territorial losses, after German continued march into Russia in 1918 Central Committee of the party voted to approve Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1/3 of Russia’s population axed
(3)With peace Lenin could pursue goal of absolute Bolshevik (now called Communalists) political power iii)Constituent Assembly tasked with drawing new constitution, led to Bolshevik loss in free elections, met for one day in January 1918 before Lenin ordered it permanently disbanded by Bolshevik troops iv)Destruction of democratically elected Constituent Assembly fed civil war flames, ppl saw getting dictatorship again, officers of old army formed “White” opposition to Bolshevik “Reds”
v)By 1918 18 self-proclaimed regional govts formed, competed with Lenin’s Bolsheviks in Moscow, by 1920 Whites almost completely defeated because:
(1)Bolsheviks controlled Center while Whites were disunited at fringes
(2)Communists developed better army, Whites no match
(3)Trotsky as war commissar re-established draft and tough discipline, formed effective fighting force
(4)War communism was application of total war to a civil conflict- nationalized banks, rationed, required work to keep Red Army supplied
(5)Revolutionary terror- Tsarist secret police re-established as Cheka, fear used as tool to silence opposition
(6)Foreign military intervention helped Communists b/c it was half-hearted-ppl in 1919 were war weary and politicians did not want to fully commit- and allowed Communists to appeal to patriotic nationalism vi)Radically new govt based on socialism and one-party dictatorship came to maintain power, encouraged worldwide revolution, radicals had won
3)Stalin’s Soviet Union
a)Stalin instituted five-year plans which oare often incorrectly considered economic measures meant to speed up industrial development, but were actually attempt to mobilize and transform Soviet society and generate new loyalties and attitudes
b)From Lenin to Stalin
i)By spring 1921 Lenin and Bolsheviks had won civil war, economy destroyed ii)In face of riots, March 1921 introduced New Economic Policy (NEP)- established limited economic freedom to rebuild agriculture and industry
(1)Heavy industry, railroads, banks all remained nationalized
(2)NEP compromise wit peasant majority, private not state workers
(3)NEP brought rapid recovery, shorter hours and increased social benefits iii)Lenin had not left successor after death in 1924, power struggle in Communist Party between Joseph Dzhugashvili (Stalin) and Leon Trotsky iv)Stalin good organizer but poor speaker, Trotsky was a great leader who had planned the 1917 takeover and created Red Army, yet Stalin succeeded Lenin
(1)Stalin more effective at gaining support of party, the only source of genuine power in a one-party state. Stalin suspended NEP
(2)Stalin better able to relate Marxian teaching to Soviet realities, theory of “socialism in one country” appealed more than Trotsky’s “permanent revolution” and socialist revolutions throughout Europe
v)Stalin achieved supreme power between 1922 and 1927 by allying with Trotsky’s enemies to crush and exile him, aligning with moderates to defeat Trotsky’s radical followers, then turned against these moderates and his allies
c)The Five-Year Plans
i)At party congress of 1927 five-year adopted, plan sought to increase industrial output, heavy industry, peasants give up private land and join collectives, economic and social change sweeping country
(1)Committed to socialism, wanted to stamp out NEPs private traders, landowners
(2)Economy had recovered but stalled in 1927-1928, way to grow rapidly
(3)Way to catch up with advanced West in short amount of time ii)Stalin feared peasants wanted capitalism and landed, decided on a war against them to bring them under state control and make them pay for social offensive
(1)Collectivization-forcible consolidation of individual farms into large, state-controlled enterprises
(2)kulaks- better-off peasants, Stallin ordered to “liqduidate them” iii)Forced collectivization led to economic and human disaster, in protest peasants slaughtered animals and burned crops
(1)Forced collectivization unproductive, unable to make any substantial financial contribution, output barely increased
(2)Millions of peasants died, famine in Ukraine led to starvation
(3)“Second serfdom”, peasants no longer political threat to Stalin and Communists, paid low prices to keep bread cheap for urban workers iv)Industrial side of five year plans extremely successful, industrial growth went hand in hand with urban development and urban migration
(1)One third of income went to investment in form of heaven, hidden sales taxes
(2)Firm labor discipline and foreign engineers used to grow industry
d)Life and Culture in Soviet Society
i)Aim of five-year plans was to create a new kind of society and human personality as well as strong industrial economy and powerful army ii)Reduced consumption for investment no improvement in standard of living, masses lived on black bread, constant shore shortages, housing shortages iii)Idealism and ideology had appeal for many communists, Soviet workers received some important social benefits- pension, free medical services, free education, day-care centers, little unemployment, personal advancement
(1)Improved position thru specialized skills and technical education b/c rapid industrialization called for trained experts and skilled workers
(2)Unskilled paid very little, but high salaries and special privileges for technical and managerial elites—ppl strove for education iv)Russian Revolution of 1917 proclaimed complete equality for women, worked along side men on farm and in factories, education opportunities same as men
(1)Soviet society demand women work outside home, but men still dominated the best jobs
v)Culture lost autonomy, became politicized thru propaganda and indoctrination, artists forced to glorify Russian nationalism, history re-written
e)Stalinist Terror and the Great Purges
i)Offensive to build socialism and personality culminated in ruthless police terror and massive purging of the Communist party- some 8 million taken ii)Party faithful, union officials, managers, intellectuals, arm officers, ordinary citizens all struck by Stalin’s reign of terror- arrested, executed, labor camps iii)Stalin and party recruited 1.5 million new members to take place of those purged, new men products of “Second Revolution”, served party loyally iv)Purges sent warning that nobody was secure and everybody had to serve party and its leader, reflect ideology of totalitarian state