Comfort Object Research Paper

Comfort object
A comfort object, transitional object, or security blanket is an item used to provide psychological comfort, especially in unusual or unique situations, or at bedtime for small children. Among toddlers, comfort objects may take the form of a blanket, a stuffed animal, or
[1]

a favorite toy, and may be referred to by (English-speaking) toddlers as blankey and lovey. Cuddly toys are sometimes carried in emergency vehicles and police patrol cars, to be given to children involved in an accident or traumatic event, to provide them comfort.

Comfort objects for therapy
Stuffed toys are sometimes equipped in emergency vehicles and police patrol cars, to be given to victims involved in an accident or traumatic shock, to provide
them comfort. Paramedics are trained to treat physical shock with a wide array of blankets designed to preserve heat, blood, and wounds for life threatening traumas.
[2]

Often charities will provide comfort objects such as blankets and quilts to victims of trauma. Psychologists are experimenting with the use of heavy thick fleece blankets to replace restraints such as straight jackets. They have noted through experiments with autistic children that weighted blankets have a desirable soothing
[3]

effect to help calm agitated patients.

In child psychology
In human childhood development, the term transitional object is normally used. It is something, usually a physical object, which takes the place of the mother-child bond. Common examples include dolls, teddy bears or blankets. Donald Woods Winnicott introduced the concepts of transitional objects and transitional experience in reference to a particular developmental sequence. With ‗transition‘ Winnicott means an intermediate developmental phase between the psychic and external reality. In this ‗transitional space‘ we can find the ‗transitional object‘. When the young child begins to separate the ‗me‘ from the ‗not-me‘ and evolves from complete dependence to a stage of relative independence, it uses transitional objects. Infants see themselves and the mother as a

whole. In this phase the mother ‗brings the world‘ to the infant without delay which gives it a ‗moment of illusion‘, a belief that its own wish creates the object of its desire which brings with it a sense of satisfaction. Winnicott calls this subjective omnipotence. Alongside the subjective omnipotence of a child lies an objective reality, which constitutes the child‘s awareness of separateness between itself and desired objects. While the subjective omnipotence experience is one in which the child feels that its desires create satisfaction, the objective reality experience is one in which the child independently seeks out objects of desire. Later on the child comes to realize that the mother is separate from it through which it appears that the child has lost something. The child realizes that it is dependent on others and thus it loses the idea that it is independent, a realization which creates a difficult period and brings frustration and anxiety with it. In the end it is impossible that the mother is always there to ‗bring the world‘ to the baby, a

realization which has a powerful, somewhat painful, but ultimately constructive impact on the child. Through fantasizing about the object of its wishes the child will find comfort. A transitional object can be used in this process. The transitional object is often the first ‗not me‘ possession that really belongs to the child. This could be a real object like a blanket or a teddy bear, but other ‗objects‘, such as a melody or a word, can fulfill this role as well. This object represents all components of ‗mothering‘, and it means that the child itself is able to create what it needs as well. It enables the child to have a fantasized bond with the mother when she gradually separates for increasingly longer periods of time. The transitional object is important at the time of going to sleep and as a defence against anxiety.

In a later stage of the development the child no longer needs the transitional object. It is able to make a distinction between ‗me‘ and ‗not-me‘, and keeping inside and outside apart and yet interrelated. This development leads to the use of illusion, symbols and objects later on in life. Winnicott related the concept of transitional object to a more general one, transitional phenomena, which he considered to be the basis of science, religion and all of culture. Transitional objects and phenomena, he said, are neither subjective nor objective but partake of both. In Mental Space, Robert Young has provided an exposition of these concepts and has generalized their role into psychic
[4][5]

phenomena in adult life. Research with children on this subject was performed at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee by Richard H. Passman and his associates. Among other findings, they showed that security blankets are appropriately named — they actually do give security to those children attached to them. Along with other positive benefits, having a security blanket available can help children adapt to new situations, aid in their learning, and adjust to physicians' and clinical psychologists' evaluations. Passman's research also points out that there is nothing abnormal about being attached to them. In the United States, about 60% of children have at least some attachment to a security object.

Use by adults
Adults may also use comfort objects. In a 2008 study, the Sony AIBO robotic pet was found to decrease loneliness in the elderly in
[6]

nursing homes.
[7]

Japanese adults use comfort objects to cope with modern stress. Stuffed animals may be given by emergency medical services workers, police, and others to victims of disasters such as fires and crime. After the September 11 attacks, writes Marita Sturken in Tourists of History, "the Oklahoma City National Memorial sent six hundred teddy bears and then the state of Oklahoma sent sixty thousand stuffed animals to New York, which were distributed to children in schools affected by 9/11, family support organizations,
[8]

and New York fire stations."
[9]

Many adults consider the comfort that security blankets provide as essential to their mental and emotional well-being.

In popular culture
It is commonly believed, the term security blanket was popularized in the Peanuts comic strip created by Charles M. Schulz, who gave such a blanket to his character Linus van Pelt.Linus called it his "Security and Happiness Blanket", in "Good Grief, more Peanuts"
[10]

printed in 1956.

However, the concept of a comforter blanket existed prior to Peanuts. In an article for, the November 1954, Review

Report, writer "Bev", wrote about her daughter. 'Security blanket. My younger child is one year old. When she finds a fuzzy blanket or a fleecy coat she presses her cheek against it and sucks her thumb.' Since 1920, blankets which clipped onto sleeping infants to prevent [11] them from rolling out of bed and keep the body covered were dubbed "Security blanket fasteners". The most common popular name for such a blanket is blanky – sometimes banky, if a child has not acquired the ability to pronounce complex onsets – with terms including wubby (popularized by the 1983 film Mr. Mom) and wink. A security blanket was also featured quite prominently and used by main character, Leopold Bloom, portrayed by Genne Wilder in 1968 Mel Books comedy The Producers, and its subsequent, 2005 musical remake The producers in which the characters is played by Matthew Broderick.

Stuffed toy
A stuffed toy is a toy sewn from a textile, and stuffed with a soft material. They are also known as plush toys (U.S. English), and soft toys or cuddly toys (British English). Textiles commonly used include plain cloth and pile textiles like plush or terrycloth. Common stuffing materials are synthetic fiber batting, cotton, straw, wood wool, plastic pellets or beans. Stuffed toys are made in many different forms, often resembling animals, legendary creatures, cartoon characters or inanimate objects. They are often used as comfort objects, for display or collecting and given as gifts, such as for graduation, Valentine's Day or birthdays.

History and types

The first commercial concern to create stuffed toys was the German Steiff company in 1880. Steiff [1] used new technology developed for upholstery to make their stuffed toys. In 1903 Richard Steiff designed a soft bear that differed from earlier traditional rag dolls because it was made of plush [1] furlike fabric. At the same time in the USA, Morris Michtom created the first teddy bear, after [2] being inspired by a drawing of Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt with a bear cub. The character Peter [3] Rabbit from English author Beatrix Potter was the first stuffed toy to be patented, in 1903. Sock monkeys are handmade stuffed monkeys made out of socks that first appeared during the [4] Great Depression. Amigurumi is a Japanese type of handcrafted knitted or crocheted stuffed toys. Amigurumi are typically made to look cute with over-sized heads and undersized extremities. [5][6] Beginning in 2003, they are collected and sold on crafting websites like Etsy. There are many brands of stuffed toys, including Beanie Babies, a line of stuffed beanbag animals, that was started in 1993. Several marketing strategies, such as keeping them at a low price, introducing a wide variety of Beanie Babies, giving them names, birthdays, and personalities, and retiring certain Beanie Babies after a while (thus giving them collector's value) made them widely popular for years after they were introduced.. Several brands of electronic and robotic plush toys were fads when they were first released. These include Tickle Me Elmo, a laughing and shaking plush toy based on the character Elmo from the
[7]

Sesame Street television show, released in 1996, Furby, a robotic talking plush toy with its own
[8]

language, released in 1998
[9][10]

and Zhu Zhu Pets, a line of robotic plush hamsters released in

2009. Webkinz stuffed animals were created by Ganz in 2005. Each Webkinz toy comes with a unique "Secret Code" that gives access to the Webkinz World website and a virtual version of the toy for [11][12] online play. Disney's Club

Penguin and Build-A-Bearville from Build-A-Bear Workshop are other online worlds with content that can be unlocked from codes found on associated stuffed toys.

Action Man accessories in the Japanese market. Takara also issued a sublicense to Medicom for the manufacture of action figures. Takara, still under license by Hasbro to make and sell G.I. Joe toys in Japan, also manufactured an action figure incorporating the licensed GI Joe torso for Henshin Cyborg-1, using transparent plastic revealing cyborg innards, and a chrome head and cyborg feet. During the oil supply crisis of the 1970s, like many other manufacturers of action figures, Takara was struggling with the costs associated with making the large 11 ½ inch figures, So, a smaller version of the cyborg toy was developed, standing at 3-3/4 inches high, and was first sold in 1974 as Microman. The Microman line was also novel in its use of interchangeable parts. This laid the foundation for both the smaller action figure size and the transforming robot toy. Takara began producing characters in the Microman line with increasingly robotic features, including Robotman, a 12" robot with room for a Microman pilot, and Mini-Robotman, a 3-3/4" version of Robotman. These toys also featured interchangeable parts, with emphasis placed on the transformation and combination of the characters. In 1971, Mego began licensing and making American Marvel and DC comic book superhero figures, which had highly successful sales and are considered highly collectible by many adults today. They eventually brought the Microman toy line to the United States as the Micronauts, but Mego eventually lost control of the market after losing the license to produce Star Wars toys in 1976. The license was lost, not because Mego didn't realize the franchise potential, but because the people who could sign the license were out of town. The
[3]

Star Wars people then visited another company located in the same building (200 5th Ave. NY, NY). The company was Kenner. The widespread success of Kenner's Star Wars 3-3/4" toy line made the newer, smaller size the industry standard. Instead of a single character with outfits that changed for different applications, toy lines included teams of characters with special functions. Led by Star Wars-themed sales, collectible action figures quickly became a multi-million dollar secondary business for movie studios. From 1972 to 1986 there was a famous line of Big Jim action figures produced by Mattel.

1980s–1990s
The 1980s spawned all sorts of popular action figure lines, many based on cartoon series', which were one of the largest marketing tools for toy companies. Some of the most successful to come about were Masters of the Universe, G.I. Joe, Thundercats, and Super Powers Collection, to name just a few. Early in the decade, the burgeoning popularity of Japanese robot anime such as Gundam also encouraged Takara to reinvent the Microman line as the Micro Robots, moving from the cyborg action figure concept to the concept of the living robot. This led to the Micro Change line of toys: objects that could "transform" into robots. In 1984, Hasbro licensed Micro Change and another Takara line, the Diaclone transforming cars, and combined them in the US as the Transformers, spawning a still-continuing family of animated cartoons. As the '80s were ending, more and more collectors started to surface, buying up the toys to keep in their original packaging for display purposes and for future collectability. This led to flooding of the action figure toy market. One of the most popular action figure lines of the late '80s and early '90s, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles action figures were produced in such high quantities that the value for most figures would never be higher than a few dollars. In the mid 1990s, a new Star Wars figure line had surfaced and Spawn figures flooded the toy store shelves, proving action figures were not just for kids anymore. Beginning in 1997, ToyFare magazine would become a popular read for mature collectors in providing news and embracing nostalgia with a comedic twist. And with the gaining popularity of the Internet, websites such as Toy News International would soon offer information on upcoming collectible figures and merchandise. It was during this time that popular characters were increasingly getting specialized costume and variant figures. Batman quickly became most notorious for this (i.e. Arctic Batman, Piranha Blade Batman, Neon Armor Batman). Rather than individual characters, these variants would make up the bulk of many action figure lines and often make use of the old figure and accessory molds. Glow-in-the-dark figures and accessories also became popular in the early '90s with lines like Toxic Crusaders and Swamp Thing. A 1999 study found that "the figures have grown much more muscular over time, with many contemporary figures far exceeding the muscularity of even the largest human bodybuilders" and that the changing cultural expectations
[4]

reflected by those changes may contribute to body image disorders in both sexes. 2000s Today, the adult collector market for action figures is expanding with companies like McFarlane Toys, Palisades, and NECA. Said companies have given numerous movie characters, musicians, and athletes their very first highly detailed figures. These are commonly intended as statuesque display pieces rather than toys; however, child-oriented lines such as the Masters of the Universe revival and Justice League Unlimited still evoke adult collector followings as well. Comic book firms are also

able to get figures of their characters produced, regardless of whether or not they appeared in movies or animated cartoons. Examples of companies that produce comic figures and merchandise almost exclusively include Toy Biz and DC Direct. Adult-oriented figure lines are often exclusive to specific chain stores rather than mass retail. Popular lines often have figures available exclusively through mail-in offers and comic conventions, which raises their value significantly. Ploys such as packaging "errors" and "short-packed" figures have also been used by toy companies to increase collector interest.

Production
Raw materials
Modelling clay and various sculpting tools are used to create the prototype. The actual figure is molded from a plastic resin, such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). This is a harder plastic used to form the main body. Softer plastics and nylon, may be used for costume components including body suits, capes, and face masks. As a final decoration, acrylic paints of various colors may be used to decorate the figure. In addition, more elaborate toys may contain miniature electronic components that provide light and sound effects.

Design
Once the character has been selected, the actual design process begins with sketches of the proposed figure. The next step is the creation of a clay prototype. This model is made by bending aluminum wires to form the backbone of the figure, known as an armature. The wire form includes the outline of the arms and legs posed in the general stance that the figure will assume. The sculptor then adds clay to the armature to give the basic weight and shape that is desired. The clay may be baked slightly during the prototyping process to harden it. Then, the sculptor uses various tools, such as a wire loop, to carve the clay and shape details on the figure. After creating the basic form, the sculptor may choose to remove the arms and work on them separately for later attachment. This gives the sculptor more control and allows him to produce finer details on the prototype. Working with blunt tools, the sculptor shapes the body with as much detail as is desired. During this process, photo and sketch references are used to ensure the figure is as realistic as possible. Some sculptors may even use human models to guide their design work.

After the general body shape is complete, the sculptor adds the finer details, paying close attention to the eyes, nose, and mouth that give the figure its life-like expression.
The designer may attach a rough lump of clay on the main figure as a temporary head while the real head is sculpted on a separate armature. This allows the sculptor to finish the figure's facial expressions independently of the body. At this point, the finished head can be attached to the main armature and joined to the body with additional clay. Once the head is attached, the neck and hair are sculpted to properly fit to the figure. Then, depending on the design of the figure, the costume may be sculpted directly onto the body. However, if a cloth costume or uniform will be added later, the prototype is sculpted without any costume details. During this process, parts of the clay may be covered with aluminum foil to keep it from prematurely drying out. Once everything is completed, the entire figure is baked to harden the clay. The sculpted prototype is then sent for approval to the manufacturer. Once all design details have been finalized, the prototype is used to make the molds that will form the plastic pieces for the mass-produced figure. The entire sculpting process may take about two weeks, depending on the skill and speed of the sculptor. This process may be repeated several times if revisions must be made to
the

[5]

figure. Several months are typically allowed for this design phase. Characteristics and features

Articulation
[6]

A common feature among action figures is body articulation, often referred to as points of articulation (POA)

or joints. The most

basic forms of articulation include one neck joint, two shoulder joints, and two hip joints. Beyond these, rotating wrists, bending knees, and a swiveling waist are also common. Various terms have come into practice such as a "cut" joint, frequently used to allow a basic head rotation at the neck or arm rotation at the shoulder. The "T" joint at a figure's hips commonly allows up to 180° of front-to-back leg rotation; although, this may vary. Ball joints often allow more liberal movement than a cut, such as the figure's head being able to
[7][8][9]

tilt in addition to a cut's strict vertical rotation. Basic knee articulation often relies on what is considered a pin joint. The amount and style of figure articulation used by toy designers have varied over the years. Two of the most popular figure lines of the 1980s, G.I. Joe: A Real American Hero and Masters of the Universe, contrasted one another greatly in articulation; the former included several points in their small, 3¾" scale while the bulkier latter remained minimal. Both, however, used methods involving rubber cords at the hips that are little used today. In the 2000s, Toy Biz's popular Marvel Legends line became known for its high rate
[10]

of articulation, even boasting points at the abdomen, toes, and fingers. Accessories While not all action figures include accessories, the additional items often prove essential to characters and their effectiveness as interactive toys. Typical 3¾" scale G.I. Joe figures include several intricately sculpted guns or hand weapons that can be fastened inside the figures' hands. Missile launchers are also commonplace in military and comic book figure lines and usually involve a spring-loaded mechanism. However, possibly due to safety concerns, this method saw a decline in the mid 1990s. Some figures, particularly of The [11] Joker, have incorporated water-squirting weapons. More recently, Marvel Legends has popularized the "build-a-figure" concept. Each figure of a particular series includes a body part to a larger-scaled figure. This encourages the consumer to purchase every figure of the given series, in order to complete the larger figure. The concept has spread into Mattel's DC Universe Classics. Figures intended to appeal to the collector market commonly include a [12] display base and/or pack-in comic book. In such cases accessories may be designed more for display than play.

Types of packaging
Manufacturers have packaged their action figures in different ways throughout the years. Below is a list of different ways that action figures are packaged: Window Box packaging Window box packages consist of a sturdy, but somewhat thin cardboard box that allows for easy stacking. The box has colorful artwork to draw one‘s attention. The front of the box will have an area of the cardboard that is cut out and a thin piece of soft plastic then fills the cutout area. This ensures easy visibility of the action figure inside of the box. This type of packaging was used by companies such as Mego Corporation in the early 1970s until they switched to the Carded Bubble style of packaging in the mid to late 1970s. Window Box packaging is still used today, often for figures that measure 10" or taller in height. Carded Bubble packaging Action figures are commonly packaged in a Carded Bubble type of packaging. This type of packaging consists of a sturdy piece of thin cardboard backing known as a "Card." The card is decorated with colorful artwork to draw consumer attention. The action figure is then placed on the card and a bubble made of clear plastic is then laid over the top of the action figure and glued to the card or attached in some other fashion. The figure is then clearly visible to consumers. Often the bubble will have several small, fitted compartments to hold the figure and its various accessories in place. The most famous example of this type of packaging is probably Kenner and Hasbro's packaging of Star Wars action figures from 1977 to today. PVC packaging A more recent type of packaging that is common as of the 2000s decade is PVC packaging. With this type of packaging, the cardboard card is replaced by a clear PVC plastic backing. The front of the package is a different piece of PVC plastic that is molded to include a bubble that will house the action figure and all of its accessories. Any colorful artwork designed to help draw attention to the package will be printed on a thin piece of paper that is placed between these two pieces of PVC, or will be affixed in sticker form to the front piece of PVC. This type of packaging is popular today and can be seen being used by McFarlane Toys for their Movie Maniacs line of action figures beginning with Series V. Other companies that utilize this type of packaging are NECA/Reel Toys (National Entertainment Collectibles Association) with their Cult Classics and Pirates of the Caribbean line of figures, and Toy

Biz with its Marvel Legends action figures, which included a comic book placed between the two PVC segments. Tube packaging Another recent type of PVC packaging that is being used is a tube- shaped piece of PVC plastic that will surround the action figure. The tube may be cylindrical in shape, or more oval in shape. Artwork on the package are often in sticker form that is affixed to the outside of the PVC tube. This type of packaging can be seen used by Hasbro for their Star Wars Galactic Heroes line of figures.

Action features
Figures of the original Masters of the Universe line included many unique "action features": Battle Armor He-Man and Skeletor had
[13]

rotating chest plates to represent varying degrees of damage;

Leech featured suction cup limbs; Mantenna's eyes would pop out using

a lever on his back; and Thunder Punch He-Man would thrust a punch and emit a loud bang from the ring cap in his backpack. Other features emphasized aesthetic rather than action, such as the flocked bodies of Grizzlor and Moss Man as well as the unique scents of the latter and Stinkor. The success of the many Transformers lines has relied heavily on their signature feature of shifting from vehicle to robot. The popularity of this carried into Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles' Mutatin' series among others. In 1987, Mattel introduced figures for the television series Captain Power and the Soldiers of the Future. The line boasted an interactive game where children could shoot at the TV screen. However, while an ambitious concept, it was not a long term success. Glow-in-the-dark paint and plastic have been utilized in various figure collections, particularly those of the early '90s including Ninja Turtles, Swamp Thing, and Toxic Crusaders. Similarly, a color-changing feature has been demonstrated on some figures throughout the years.

Teddy bear
The teddy bear is a stuffed toy bear. They are usually stuffed with soft, white cotton and have smooth and soft fur. It is an enduring form of a stuffed animal in many countries, often serving the purpose of entertaining children. In recent times, some teddy bears have
[1]

become collector's items. Now, teddy bears come in various styles and people can dress them up in many different articles of clothing. Teddy bears are also among the most popular gifts for children and significant others on Valentine's Day, birthdays, Christmas and other holidays.

History
The name Teddy Bear comes from former United States President Theodore Roosevelt, whose nickname was "Teddy". The name originated from an incident on a bear hunting trip in Mississippi in November 1902, to which Roosevelt was invited by Mississippi Governor Andrew H. Longino . There were several other hunters competing, and most of them had already killed an animal. A suite of
[2]

Roosevelt's attendants, led by Holt Collier , cornered, clubbed, and tied an American Black Bear to a willow tree after a long exhausting chase with hounds. They called Roosevelt to the site and suggested that he should shoot it. He refused to shoot the bear
[3]

himself, deeming this unsportsmanlike, but instructed that the bear be killed to put it out of its misery, and it became the topic of a
[4]

political cartoon by Clifford Berryman in The Washington Post on November 16, 1902. While the initial cartoon of an adult black bear lassoed by a handler and a disgusted Roosevelt had symbolic overtones, later issues of that and other Berryman cartoons made the
[5]

bear smaller and cuter.

Morris Michtom saw the drawing of Roosevelt and the bear cub and was inspired to create a new toy. He created a little stuffed bear cub and put it in his shop window with a sign that read "Teddy's bear," after sending a bear to Roosevelt and receiving permission to use his name. The toys were an immediate success and Michtom founded the Ideal [3] Novelty and Toy Co. At the same time in Germany, the Steiff firm, unaware of Michtom's bear, produced a stuffed bear from Richard Steiff's designs. Steiff exhibited the toy at the Leipzig Toy Fair in March 1903, where it was seen by Hermann Berg, a buyer for George Borgfeldt &
[6]

Company in New York. He ordered 3000 to be sent to the United States. Although Steiff's records show that the bears were produced, they are not recorded as arriving in America, and no example of the type, "55 PB", has ever been seen, leading to the story that the bears were shipwrecked. However, the story is disputed - Gunther Pfieffer notes that it was only recorded in 1953 and says it is more
[7]

likely that the 55 PB was not sufficiently durable to survive until the present day. Although Steiff and Michtom were both making
[4]

teddy bears at around the same time, neither would have known of the other's creation due to poor transatlantic communication. By 1906 manufacturers other than Michtom and Steiff had joined in and the craze for "Roosevelt Bears" was such that ladies carried them everywhere, children were photographed with them, and Roosevelt used one as a mascot in his bid for re-election.
[8]

American educator Seymour Eaton wrote the children's book series The Roosevelt Bears, while composer John Bratton wrote "The Teddy Bear Two Step" which, with the addition of Jimmy Kennedy's lyrics, became the song "The Teddy Bears' Picnic". Early teddy bears were made to look like real bears, with extended snouts and beady eyes. Today's teddy bears tend to have larger eyes and foreheads and smaller noses, babylike features that make them more attractive to buyers because they enhance the toy's cuteness, and may even be pre-dressed.

Production

Commercially made, mass-produced teddy bears are predominantly made as toys for children. These bears have safety joints for attaching arms, legs, and heads. They must have securely fastened eyes that do not pose a choking hazard for small children. These "plush" bears must meet a rigid standard of construction in order to be marketed to children in the United States and in the European Union. There are also companies, like Steiff, that sell handmade collectible bears that can be purchased in stores or over the Internet. The majority of teddy bears are manufactured in countries such as China and Indonesia. A few small, single-person producers in the United States make unique, non-mass produced teddy bears. In the United
[9]

Kingdom one small, traditional teddy bear company remains, Merrythought, which was established in 1930. Mohair , the fur shorn or combed from a breed of long haired goats, is woven into cloth, dyed and trimmed. Alpaca teddy bears are made from the pelt of an alpaca because the fiber is too soft to weave. In addition to mohair and alpaca, there is a huge selection of "plush" or synthetic fur made for the teddy bear market. Both these types of fur are commercially produced.

Some teddy bear artists specialize in the production of bears made from recycled materials. These artists hunt thrift stores, flea markets, garage sales and trash collection centers, as well as their own and their families' basements and attics, in search of materials to be turned into teddy bears. Some teddy bear artists specialize in crochet bears made out of thread. For these bears, artists do not use fabric; they make the fabric crocheting and at the same time make the bear. Thread crochet bears are fully jointed, miniature bears. They may be made out of cotton crochet thread, eyelash yarn, or other fiber.

Popularity
[10]

Retail sales of stuffed plush animals including teddy bears was $1.3 billion in 2006. The most commonly sold brands include Gund and Ty Inc. Brands associated with teddy bears that enjoyed strong popularity in the 1980s and 1990s are Teddy Ruxpin and Care Bears. Teddy bears have seen a resurgence in popularity as international "do-it-yourself" chains have opened. Among the largest and best-known are Build-A-Bear Workshop and Vermont Teddy Bear Company. Some popular mass-marketed teddy bears made today include Rupert, Sooty, Paddington, and Pudsey Bear. Books have also been written with the teddy bear featured as their main character. These include Winnie-the-Pooh, Corduroy, Teddy Tells Time, and Teddy Dressing.

Teddy bear museums
The world's first teddy bear museum was set up in Petersfield, Hampshire, England, in 1984. In 1990, a similar foundation was set up in Naples, Florida, United States. These were closed in 2006 and 2005 respectively, and the bears were sold in auctions, but there are today many teddy bear museums around the world.

Teddy bear cops
Because police, fire and emergency officials found that giving a teddy bear to a child during a crisis stabilized and calmed them, NAPLC created the Teddy Bear Cops program to distribute teddy bears to police, fire, and emergency officials throughout the United
[11][12]

States, for their use in providing teddy bears to children in emergency situations.

Board game
A board game is a game that involves counters or pieces moved or placed on a pre-marked surface or "board", according to a set of rules. Games can be based on pure strategy, chance (e.g. rolling dice) or a mixture of the two, and usually have a goal which a player aims to achieve. Early board games represented a battle between two armies, and most current board games are still based on defeating opposing players in terms of counters, winning position or accrual of points (often expressed as in-game currency). There are many different types and styles of board games. Their representation of real-life situations can range from having no inherent theme, as with checkers, to having a specific theme and narrative, as with Cluedo. Rules can range from the very simple, as in tic-tac-toe, to those describing a game universe in great detail, as in Dungeons & Dragons (although most of the latter are role-playing games where the board is secondary to the game, helping to visualize the game scenario). The amount of time required to learn to play or master a game varies greatly from game to game. Learning time does not necessarily correlate with the number or complexity of rules; some games, such as chess or Go, have simple rulesets while possessing profound strategies.

History Board games have been played in most cultures and societies throughout history; some even pre-date literacy skill development in the earliest civilizations. A number of important historical sites, artifacts and documents exist which shed light on early board games. Some of these include: Jiroft civilization gameboards ,Senet has been found in Predynastic and First Dynasty burials of
[1]

Egypt, c. 3500 BC and 3100 BC respectively. Senet is the oldest board game known to have existed, and was pictured in a fresco
[2]

found in Merknera's tomb (3300–2700 BC). Mehen, another ancient board game from Predynastic Egypt,Go, an ancient strategic board game originating in China ,Patolli, a board game originating in Mesoamerica played by the ancient Aztec ,Royal Game of Ur, the Royal Tombs of Ur contain this game, among others ,Buddha games list, the earliest known list of games ,Pachisi and Chaupar, ancient
[1]

board games of India Timeline c.3500 BC: Senet is played in Predynastic Egypt as evidenced by its inclusion in burial sites; also depicted in the tomb of Merknera. c.3000 BC: The Mehen board game from Predynastic Egypt, was played with lion-shaped game [3][4] pieces and marbles. c.3000 BC: Ancient backgammon set, found in the Burnt City in Iran. c.2560 BC: Board of the Royal Game of Ur (found at Ur Tombs) c.2500 BC: Paintings of Senet and Han being played depicted in the tomb of Rashepes c.1500 BC: Painting of
[5]

board game at Knossos. c.500 BC: The Buddha games list mentions board games played on 8 or 10 rows.

Chaturaji: played in India, starting position. Pieces with different colors (some shown as inverted) were used for each of four sides. • c.500 BC: The earliest reference to Pachisi in the Mahabharata, the Indian epic. • c.400 BC: Two ornately decorated liubo gameboards from a royal
[6]

tomb of the State of Zhongshan in China. • c.400 BC: The earliest written reference to go (weiqi) in the historical annal Zuo Zhuan. Go is also mentioned in the Analects of
[7]

Confucius (c. 5th century BC). • 116–27 BC: Marcus Terentius Varro's Lingua Latina X (II, par. 20)
[8]

contains earliest known reference to Latrunculi (often confused with Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum, Ovid's game mentioned below). • 1 BC–8 AD: Ovid's Ars Amatoria contains earliest known reference to Ludus Duodecim Scriptorum. • 1 BC–8 AD: The Roman Game of kings is a game of which little is known, and which is more or less contemporary with the Latrunculi. • c.43 AD: The Stanway Game is buried with the Druid of
[9]

Colchester. • c.200 AD: A stone go board with a 17×17 grid from a tomb at
[10]

Wangdu County in Hebei, China. • 220–265: Backgammon enters China under the name t'shu-p'u (Source: Hun Tsun Sii) •
[11]

c.400 onwards: Tafl games played in Northern Europe.

b a 8 c

d e

f g

h

8

7

7

6

6

5

5

4

4

b

d c e

f g

h

[12]

Chaturanga: played in India, starting not face each other; the white Ràja d8.

a 8

position. Note that the Ràjas do starts on e1 and the black Ràja on
8

Ashtāpada, the uncheckered 8×8 board, which chaturanga was played • c.600 The earliest references Vasavadatta and Banabhatta's Harsha • c.600: The earliest reference to Karnamak-i-Artakhshatr-i-Papakan.

7

7

sometimes with special markers, on to chaturanga written in Subandhu's Charitha early Indian books. shatranj written in

6

6

5

5

Alfonso X of Castile in Spain commissioned Libro de ajedrez, dados, y tablas (Libro de los Juegos (The Book of Games)) translated into Castilian from Arabic and added illustrations with the goal of
[13][14]

4

4

b a 8 c

d e

f g

h

perfecting the work. • c.1930: Monopoly stabilises popular. • 1957: Risk is released. • c.1980: German-style board Many board games are now available as computer itself as one of several rise of computer use is one of the decline in board games. Many board against a computer and/or other players. time and immediately show the email to notify the players after each this article). Modern technology (the

8

into the version that is currently
7 7

games begin to develop as a genre. video games, which can include the

6

6

players, or as sole opponent. The reasons said to have led to a relative games can now be played online

5

5

Some websites allow play in real opponents' moves, while others use move (see the links at the end of internet and cheaper home printing)

4

4

has also influenced board games via the phenomenon of print-and-play board games that you buy and print yourself. Some board games make use of components in addition to—or instead of—a board and playing pieces. Some games use CDs, video cassettes, and, more recently, DVDs in accompaniment to the game.

Psychology
While there has been a fair amount of scientific research on the psychology of older board games (e.g., chess, go, [15] Much mancala), less has been done on contemporary board games such as Monopoly, Scrabble, and Risk.research has been carried out on chess, in part because many tournament players are publicly ranked in national and international lists, which makes it possible precisely to compare their levels of expertise. The works of Adriaan de Groot, William Chase, Herbert Simon, and Fernand Gobet have established that knowledge, more than the ability to anticipate moves, plays an essential role in chess-playing. This seems to be the case in other traditional games such as Go and Oware (a type of mancala game), but data is lacking in regard to contemporary board games. Additionally, board games can be therapeutic. Bruce Halpenny, a games inventor said when interviewed about his game, ―With crime you deal with every basic human emotion and also have enough elements to combine action with melodrama. The player‘s imagination is fired as they plan to rob the train. Because of the gamble they take in the early stage of the game there is a build up of tension, which is immediately released once the train is robbed. Release

[16]

of tension is therapeutic and useful in our society, because most jobs are boring and repetitive.‖ Linearly arranged board games have been shown to improve children's spatial numerical understanding. This is because the game is similar to a number line in that they promote a linear understanding of numbers rather than the
[17]

innate logarithmic one. Luck, strategy and diplomacy Most board games involve both luck and strategy. But an important feature of them is the amount of randomness/luck involved, as opposed to skill. Some games, such as chess, depend almost entirely on player skill. But many children's games are mainly decided by luck: eg Candy Land and Chutes and Ladders require no decisions by the players. A player may be hampered by a few poor rolls of the dice in Risk or Monopoly, but over many games a good player will win more often. While some purists consider luck not to be a desirable component of a game, others counter that elements of luck can make for far more diverse and multi-faceted strategies, as concepts such as expected value and risk management must be considered. A second feature is the game information available to players. Some games (chess being the classic example) are perfect information games: every player has complete information on the state of the game. In other games, such as Tigris and Euphrates, some information is hidden from players. This makes finding the best move more difficult, but also requires the players to estimate probabilities by the players. Tigris and Euphrates also has completely deterministic action resolution. Another important feature of a game is the importance of diplomacy, i.e. players making deals with each other. A game of solitaire, for obvious reasons, has no player interaction. Two player games usually do not involve diplomacy (cooperative games being the exception). Thus, negotiation generally features only in games for three or more people. An important facet of The Settlers of Catan, for example, is convincing people to trade with you rather than with other players. In Risk, two or more players may team up against others. Easy diplomacy involves convincing other players that someone else is winning and should therefore be teamed up against. Advanced diplomacy (e.g. in the aptly named game Diplomacy) consists of making elaborate plans together, with the possibility of betrayal. Luck may be introduced into a game by a number of methods. The most common method is the use of dice, generally six-sided. These can decide everything from how many steps a player moves their token, as in Monopoly, to how their forces fare in battle, such as in Risk, or which resources a player gains, such as in The Settlers of Catan. Other games such as Sorry! use a deck of special cards that, when shuffled, create randomness. Scrabble does something similar with randomly picked letters. Other games use spinners, timers of random length, or other sources of randomness. Trivia games have a great deal of randomness based on the questions a player has to answer. German-style board games are notable for often having rather less of a luck factor than many North American board games.

Common terms
Although many board games have a jargon all their own, there is a generalized terminology to describe concepts applicable to basic game mechanics and attributes common to nearly all board games. • Gameboard (or simply board)—the (usually quadrilateral) surface on which one plays a board game. The namesake of the board game, gameboards would seem to be a necessary and sufficient condition of the genre, though card games that do not use a standard deck of cards (as well as games which use neither cards nor a gameboard) are often colloquially included. Most games use a standardized and unchanging board (chess, Go, and backgammon each have such a board), but many games use a modular board whose component tiles or cards can assume varying layouts from one session to another, or even while the game is played. • Game piece (gamepiece, counter, token, bit, meeple, mover, pawn, man, playing piece, player piece)—a player's representative on the gameboard made of a piece of material made to look like a known object (such as a scale model of a person, animal, or inanimate object) or otherwise general symbol. Each player may control one or more game pieces. Some games involve commanding multiple game pieces (or units), such as chess pieces or Monopoly houses and hotels, that have unique designations and capabilities within the parameters of the game; in other games, such as Go, all pieces controlled by a player have the same capabilities. In some modern board games, such as Clue, there are other pieces that are not a player's representative (i.e. weapons). In some games, pieces may not represent or belong to any particular player. • Jump (or leap)—to bypass one or more game pieces or spaces. Depending on the context, jumping may also involve capturing or conquering an opponent's game piece. (See also: Game mechanic: capture) • Space (or square)—a physical unit of progress on a gameboard delimited by a distinct border. Alternatively, a unique position on the board on which a game piece may be located while in play. (In Go, for example, the pieces are placed on intersections of lines on the grid, not in the areas bounded by borders, as in chess.) (See also: Game mechanic: Movement) • Hex (or cell)—in hexagon-based board games, this is the common term for a standard space on the board. This is most often used in wargaming, though many abstract strategy games such as Abalone, hexagonal chess, and connection games use hexagonal

layouts. • Card—a piece of cardboard on which instructions are given. • Deck—a stack of cards. • Capture—a method that removes another player's game piece(s) from the board. For example: in checkers, if a player jumps the opponent's piece, that piece is captured.

Categories
There are a number of different categories that board games can be broken up into, although considerable overlap exists, and a game may belong in several categories. The following is a list of some of the most common: • Abstract strategy games like chess, checkers, go, Reversi, or modern games such as Abalone or Stratego • Dexterity games like Tumblin' Dice and Pitch Car • German-style board games, or Eurogames, like The Settlers of Catan, Carson City or Puerto Rico • Educational games like Arthur Saves the Planet, Cleopatra and the Society of Architects, and Shakespeare: The Bard Game • Family games like Roll Through the Ages, Birds on a Wire, or For Sale • Historical simulation games like Through the Ages and Railways of the World • Large multiplayer games like Take It Easy and Swat (2010) Share-buyi • Musical games like Spontuneous ng games • Race games like parchisi, backgammon or Worm Up (in which • Roll-and-move games, like Monopoly or Life players buy stakes in each others' Spiritual development games that have no winners or losers, like Transformation Game or Psyche's Key positions; • • Two-player only games like En Garde and Dos de Mayo these are • Trivia games, like Trivial Pursuit typically • Train games longer • Wargames, ranging from Risk to Attack or Conquest of the Empire economic• Word games, like Scrabble, Boggle, or What's My Word? (2010) managemen • • Sackson, Sid. A Gamut of Games. Arrow Books, 1983. ISBN 0-09-153340-6 t games)

Video game
A video game is an electronic game that involves human interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. [1] The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device, but following popularization of the term "video game", it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to play video games are known as platforms; examples of these are personal computers and video game consoles. These platforms range from large mainframe computers to small handheld devices. Specialized video games such as arcade games, while previously common, have gradually declined in use. Video games have gone on to become an art form and industry. The input device used to manipulate video games is called a game controller, and varies across platforms. For example, a controller might consist of only a button and a joystick, while another may feature a dozen buttons and one or more joysticks. Early personal

computer games often needed a keyboard for gameplay, or more commonly, required the user to buy a separate joystick with at least [2] one button. Many modern computer games allow or require the player to use a keyboard and a mouse simultaneously. A few of the most common game controllers are gamepads, mice, keyboards, and joysticks. Video games typically use additional means of providing interactivity and information to the player. Audio is almost universal, using sound reproduction devices, such as speakers and headphones. Other feedback may come via haptic peripherals, such as vibration or force feedback, with vibration sometimes used to simulate force feedback. In the early days of cartridge consoles, they were sometimes called TV games, a term now often used for handheld TV games.

History

Early games used interactive electronic devices with various display formats. The earliest example is from 1947—a "Cathode ray tube Amusement Device" was filed for a patent on January 25, 1947, by Thomas T. Goldsmith Jr. and
[3]

Estle Ray Mann, and issued on December 14, 1948, as U.S. Patent 2455992. Inspired by radar display tech, it consisted of an analog device that allowed a user to control a vector-drawn dot on the screen to simulate a missile being fired
[4]

at targets, which were drawings fixed to the screen. Other early examples include: • The NIMROD computer at the 1951 Festival of Britain • OXO a tic-tac-toe Computer game by Alexander S. Douglas for the EDSAC in 1952 • Tennis for Two, an interactive game engineered by William Higinbotham in 1958 • Spacewar!, written by MIT students Martin Graetz, Steve Russell, and Wayne Wiitanen's on a DEC PDP-1
[5]

computer in 1961. Each game used different means of display: NIMROD used a panel of lights to play the game of Nim, OXO
[6] [4]

used a graphical display to play tic-tac-toe

Tennis for Two used an oscilloscope to display a side view of a tennis court, and
[7]

Spacewar! used the DEC PDP-1's vector display to have two spaceships battle each other. In 1971, Computer Space, created by Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney, was the first commercially sold, coin-operated video game. It
[8]

used a black-and-white television for its display, and the computer system was made of 74 series TTL chips. The game was featured in the 1973 science fiction film Soylent Green. Computer Space was followed in 1972 by the Magnavox Odyssey, the first home console. Modeled after a late 1960s prototype console developed by Ralph H. Baer called the "Brown Box", it also used a standard
[4][9]

television.

These were followed by two versions of Atari's Pong; an arcade version in 1972 and a home version in 1975 that
[10]

dramatically increased video game popularity.

The commercial success of Pong led numerous other companies to develop Pong
[11]

clones and their own systems, spawning the video game industry. A flood of Pong clones eventually led to the video game crash of 1977, which came to an end with the mainstream success of Taito's
[12]

1978 shooter game Space Invaders, manufacturers to enter the market.

marking the beginning of the golden age of arcade video games and inspiring dozens of The game inspired arcade machines to become prevalent in mainstream locations such as
[14]

[12][13]

shopping malls, traditional storefronts, restaurants, and convenience stores.

The game also became the subject of numerous articles
[15][16]

and stories on television and in newspapers and magazines, establishing video gaming as a rapidly growing mainstream hobby.

Space Invaders was soon licensed for the Atari VCS (later known as Atari 2600), becoming the first "killer app" and quadrupling the
[17] [18]

console's sales.

This helped Atari recover from their earlier losses,

and in turn the Atari VCS revived the home video game market
[19]

during the second generation of consoles, up until the North American video game crash of 1983. was revitalized shortly afterwards by the widespread success of the Nintendo Entertainment System, Overview

The home video game industry
[20]

which marked a shift in the
[21]

dominance of the video game industry from the United States to Japan during the third generation of consoles.

Platforms
The term "platform" refers to the specific combination of electronic components or computer hardware which, in
[22]

conjunction with software, allows a video game to operate.

The term "system" is also commonly used. In common use a "PC game"

refers to a form of media that involves a player interacting with a IBM PC compatible personal computer connected to a video monitor. A "console game" is played on a specialized electronic device that connects to a common television set or composite video monitor. A "handheld" gaming device is a self contained electronic device that is portable and can be held in a user's hands. "Arcade game" generally refers to a game played on an even more specialized type of electronic device that is typically designed to play only one game and is encased in a special cabinet. These distinctions are not always clear and there may be games that bridge one or more platforms. In addition to personal computers, there are multiple other devices which have the ability to play games but are not dedicated video game machines, such as mobile phones, PDAs and graphing calculators. With the advent of social networking and other online applications hubs, the term "platform" started being used to refer to the online service within which the game is played, regardless of the actual hardware on which it is executed. A game's platform could simply be "Facebook", whether it is played on a Windows PC, Mac, Smart TV, or smartphone.

Genres
A video game, like most other forms of media, may be categorized into genres based on many factors such as method of game play, types of goals, art style and more. Because genres are dependent on content for definition, genres have changed and evolved as newer styles of video games have come into existence. Ever advancing technology and production values related to video game development have fostered more life-like and complex games which have in turn introduced or enhanced genre possibilities (e.g., virtual pets), pushed the boundaries of existing video gaming or in some cases add new possibilities in play (such as that seen with titles specifically designed for devices like Sony's EyeToy). Some genres represent combinations of others, such as massively multiplayer online role-playing games, or, more commonly, MMORPGs. It is also common to see higher level genre terms that are collective in nature across all other genres such as with action, music/rhythm or horror-themed video games.

Classifications
Casual games Casual games derive their name from their ease of accessibility, simple to understand gameplay and quick to grasp rule sets. Additionally, casual games frequently support the ability to jump in and out of play on demand. Casual games as a format existed long before the term was coined and include video games such as Solitaire or Minesweeper which can commonly be found pre-installed with many versions of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Examples of genres within this category are hidden object, match three, time management, tetris or many of the tower defense style games. Casual games are generally sold through online retailers such as PopCap, Zylom, Vans Video Games and GameHouse or provided for free play through web portals such as Newgrounds or AddictingGames. While casual games are most commonly played on personal computers, cellphones or PDAs, they can also be found on many of the on-line console system download services (e.g., Xbox Live, PlayStation Network, or WiiWare). Serious games Serious games are games that are designed primarily to convey information or a learning experience of some sort to the player. Some serious games may even fail to qualify as a video game in the traditional sense of the term. Educational software does not typically fall under this category (e.g., touch typing tutors, language learning, etc.) and the primary distinction would appear to be based on the title's primary goal as well as target age demographics. As with the other categories, this description is more of a guideline than a rule. Serious games are games generally made for reasons beyond simple entertainment and as with the core and casual games may include works from any given genre, although some such as exergames, educational games, or propaganda games may have a higher

representation in this group due to their subject matter. These games are typically designed to be played by professionals as part of a specific job or for skill set improvement. They can also be created to convey social-political awareness on a specific subject. One of the longest running serious games franchises would be Microsoft Flight Simulator first published in 1982 under that name. The
[23]

United States military uses virtual reality based simulations, such as VBS1 for training exercises,
[24]

as do a growing number of first

responder roles (e.g., police, fire fighter, EMT).

One example of a non-game environment utilized as a platform for serious game
[25]

development would be the virtual world of Second Life, which is currently used by several United States governmental departments (e.g., NOAA, NASA, JPL), Universities (e.g., Ohio University, MIT) for educational and remote learning programs
[26]

and businesses

(e.g., IBM, Cisco Systems) for meetings and training. Tactical media in video games plays a crucial role in making a statement or conveying a message on important relevant issues. This form of media allows for a broader audience to be able to receive and gain access to certain information that otherwise may not have reached such people. An example of tactical media in video games would be newsgames. These are short games related to
[27]

contemporary events designed to illustrate a point.

For example, Take Action Games is a game studio collective that was co-founded
[28]

by Susana Ruiz and has made successful serious games. Some of these games include Darfur is Dying, Finding Zoe, and In The Balance. All of these games bring awareness to important issues and events in an intelligent and well thought out manner. Educational games On September 23, 2009, U.S. President Barack Obama launched a campaign called "Educate to Innovate" aimed at improving the technological, mathematical, scientific and engineering abilities of American students. This campaign states that it plans to harness the [29][30] power of interactive games to help achieve the goal of students excelling in these departments. This campaign has stemmed into many new and exciting opportunities for the video game realm and has contributed to many new competitions. Some of these [31][32] competitions include the Stem National Video Game Competition and the Imagine Cup. Both of these examples are events that bring a focus to relevant and important current issues that are able to be addressed in the sense of video games to educate and spread knowledge in a new form of media. www.NobelPrize.org uses games to entice the user to learn about information pertaining to the [33] Nobel prize achievements while engaging in a fun to play video game. There are many different types and styles of educational games all the way from counting to spelling to games for kids and games for adults. Some other games do not have any particular targeted audience in mind and intended to simply educate or inform whoever views or plays the game.

Development
Video game development and authorship, much like any other form of entertainment, is frequently a cross-disciplinary field. Video game developers, as employees within this industry are commonly referred, primarily include programmers and graphic designers. Over the years this has expanded to include almost every type of skill that one might see prevalent in the creation of any movie or television program, including sound designers, musicians, and other technicians; as well as skills that are specific to video games, such as the game designer. All of these are managed by producers. In the early days of the industry, it was more common for a single person to manage all of the roles needed to create a video game. As platforms have become more complex and powerful in the type of material they can present, larger teams have been needed to generate all of the art, programming, cinematography, and more. This is not to say that the age of the "one-man shop" is gone, as this is still
[34]

sometimes found in the casual gaming and handheld markets,

where smaller games are prevalent due to technical limitations such as

limited RAM or lack of dedicated 3D graphics rendering capabilities on the target platform (e.g., some cellphones and PDAs). With the growth of the size of development teams in the industry, the problem of cost has increased. Development studios need to be able to pay their staff a competitive wage in order to attract and retain the best talent, while publishers are constantly looking to keep costs down in order to maintain profitability on their investment. Typically, a video game console development team can range in sizes of anywhere from 5 to 50 people, with some teams exceeding 100. In May 2009, one game project was reported to have a development
[35]

staff of 450.

The growth of team size combined with greater pressure to get completed projects into the market to begin recouping

production costs has led to a greater occurrence of missed deadlines and unfinished products.

Downloadable content
A newer phenomenon of withholding content from the game and then releasing it at a later date for additional funds not factored into

the retail price began with digital video game distribution known as Downloadable Content (also known colloquially as 'DLC'). Studios may choose to utilize this to issue original content after the game is released, such as Rockstar Games with Grand Theft Auto IV, or Bethesda with Fallout 3, yet often opt instead to create content before the game is released to be intentionally withheld, such as Activision and Treyarch with Call of Duty (Despite knowing well public affection for a 'Zombies' game mode, it was shipped with only
[36][37][38]

one map for this game mode, and periodically releases new ones with $10 DLC). Modifications Many games produced for the PC are designed such that technically oriented consumers can modify the game. These mods can add an extra dimension of replayability and interest. Developers such as id Software, Valve Software, Crytek, Bethesda, Epic Games and Blizzard Entertainment ship their games with some of the development tools used to make the game, along with documentation to assist mod developers. The Internet provides an inexpensive medium to promote and distribute mods, and they may be a factor in the
[39]

commercial success of some games. This allows for the kind of success seen by popular mods such as the Half-Life mod Counter-Strike.

Cheating
[40][41]

Cheating in computer games may involve cheat codes and hidden spots implemented by the game developers,
[42][43]

modification of

game code by third parties,
[42]

or players exploiting a software glitch. Modifications are facilitated by either cheat cartridge hardware
[41][42]

or a software trainer.

Cheats usually make the game easier by providing an unlimited amount of some resource; for example Other cheats might give access to otherwise

weapons, health, or ammunition; or perhaps the ability to walk through walls.

unplayable levels or provide unusual or amusing features, like altered game colors or other graphical appearances.

Glitches
Software errors not detected by software testers during development can find their way into released versions of computer and video games. This may happen because the glitch only occurs under unusual circumstances in the game, was deemed too minor to correct, or because the game development was hurried to meet a publication deadline. Glitches can range from minor graphical errors to serious bugs that can delete saved data or cause the game to malfunction. In some cases publishers will release updates (referred to as patches) to repair glitches. Sometimes a glitch may be beneficial to the player, these are often referred to as exploits.

Easter eggs
Easter eggs are hidden messages or jokes left in games by developers that are not part of the main game.

Theory
Although departments of computer science have been studying the technical aspects of video games for years, theories that examine games as an artistic medium are a relatively recent development in the humanities. The two most visible schools in this emerging field are ludology and narratology. Narrativists approach video games in the context of what Janet Murray calls "Cyberdrama". That is to say, their major concern is with video games as a storytelling medium, one that arises out of interactive fiction. Murray puts video games in the context of the Holodeck, a fictional piece of technology from Star Trek, arguing for the video game as a medium in which
[44]

we get to become another person, and to act out in another world.

This image of video games received early widespread popular

support, and forms the basis of films such as Tron, eXistenZ and The Last Starfighter. Ludologists break sharply and radically from this idea. They argue that a video game is first and foremost a game, which must be understood in terms of its rules, interface, and the concept of play that it deploys. Espen J. Aarseth argues that, although games certainly have plots, characters, and aspects of traditional narratives, these aspects are incidental to gameplay. For example, Aarseth is critical of the widespread attention that narrativists have given to the heroine of the game Tomb Raider, saying that "the dimensions of Lara Croft's body, already analyzed to death by film theorists, are irrelevant to me as a player, because a different-looking body would
[45]

not make me play differently... When I play, I don't even see her body, but see through it and past it."

Simply put, ludologists reject

traditional theories of art because they claim that the artistic and socially relevant qualities of a video game are primarily determined by the underlying set of rules, demands, and expectations imposed on the player. While many games rely on emergent principles, video games commonly present simulated story worlds where emergent behavior occurs within the context of the game. The term "emergent narrative" has been used to describe how, in a simulated environment,
[46]

storyline can be created simply by "what happens to the player."

However, emergent behavior is not limited to sophisticated games.

In general, any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game, emergent behavior will exist. For instance, take a racing game in which cars are programmed to avoid crashing, and they encounter an obstacle in the track: the cars might then maneuver to avoid the obstacle causing the cars behind them to slow and/or maneuver to accommodate the cars in front of them and the obstacle. The programmer never wrote code to specifically create a traffic jam, yet one now exists in the game.

Social aspects
Demographics
The November 2005 Nielsen Active Gamer Study, taking a survey of 2,000 regular gamers, found that the U.S. games market is diversifying. The age group among male players has expanded significantly in the 25–40 age group. For casual online puzzle-style and simple mobile cell phone games, the gender divide is more or less equal between males and females. Females have also been found to show an attraction to online multi-player games where there is a communal experience. More recently there has been a growing segment of female players engaged with the aggressive style of games historically considered to fall within traditionally male genres
[47]

(e.g., first-person shooters). According to the ESRB almost 41% of PC gamers are women

(see Girl gamer).

When comparing today's industry climate with that of 20 years ago, women and many adults are more inclined to be using products in the industry. While the market for teen and young adult men is still a strong market, it is the other demographics which are posting significant growth. The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) provides the following summary for 2011 based on a study of
[48]

almost 1,200 American households carried out by Ipsos MediaCT:
[49] [50][51]

as LGBT) as a significant demographic group.
[52][53][54]

A followup survey in 2009 studied the purchase habits and content preferences
[55]

of people in the group. Based on the study by NPD group in 2011, about 91 percent of kids aged 2–17 play games. Multiplayer Video gaming has traditionally been a social experience. Multiplayer video games are those that can be played either competitively, sometimes in Electronic Sports, or cooperatively by using either multiple input devices, or by hotseating. Tennis for Two, arguably the first video game, was a two player game, as was its successor Pong. The first commercially available game console, the Magnavox Odyssey, had two controller inputs. Since then, most consoles have been shipped with two or four controller inputs. Some have had the ability to expand to four, eight or as many as 12 inputs with additional adapters, such as the Multitap. Multiplayer arcade games typically feature play for two to four players, sometimes tilting the monitor on its back for a top-down viewing experience allowing players to sit opposite one another. Many early computer games for non-PC descendant based platforms featured multiplayer support. Personal computer systems from Atari and Commodore both regularly featured at least two game ports. PC-based computer games started with a lower availability of multiplayer options because of technical limitations. PCs typically had either one or no game ports at all. Network games for these early personal computers were generally limited to only text based adventures or MUD s that were played remotely on a dedicated server. This was due both to the slow speed of modems (300-1200-bit/s), and the prohibitive cost involved with putting a computer online in such a way where multiple visitors could make use of it. However, with the advent of widespread local area network ing technologies and Internet based online capabilities, the number of players in modern games can be 32 or higher, sometimes featuring integrated text and/or voice chat. MMOs can offer extremely high numbers of simultaneous players; Eve Online set a record with 54,446 players on
[56]

a single server in 2010. Benefits It has been shown that action video game players have better hand-eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as their resistance to distraction, their sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and their ability to count briefly presented objects, than
[57]

nonplayers. Researchers found that such enhanced abilities could be acquired by training with action games, involving challenges that switch attention between different locations, but not with games requiring concentration on single objects. It has been suggested by a few studies that online/offline video gaming can be used as a therapeutic tool in the treatment of different mental health concerns. In Steven Johnson's book, Everything Bad Is Good for You, he argues that video games in fact demand far more from a player than

traditional games like Monopoly. To experience the game, the player must first determine the objectives, as well as how to complete them. They must then learn the game controls and how the human-machine interface works, including menus and HUDs. Beyond such skills, which after some time become quite fundamental and are taken for granted by many gamers, video games are based upon the player navigating (and eventually mastering) a highly complex system with many variables. This requires a strong analytical ability, as well as flexibility and adaptability. He argues that the process of learning the boundaries, goals, and controls of a given game is often a highly demanding one that calls on many different areas of cognitive function. Indeed, most games require a great deal of patience and focus from the player, and, contrary to the popular perception that games provide instant gratification, games actually delay
[58]

gratification far longer than other forms of entertainment such as film or even many books. Some research suggests video games may
[59]

even increase players' attention capacities. Learning principles found in video games have been identified as possible techniques with which to reform the U.S. education
[60]

system. It has been noticed that gamers adopt an attitude while playing that is of such high concentration, they do not realize they are
[61]

learning, and that if the same attitude could be adopted at school, education would enjoy significant benefits. Students are found to be
[62]

"learning by doing" while playing video games while fostering creative thinking. The U.S. Army has deployed machines such as the PackBot and UAV vehicles, which make use of a game-style
[63]

hand controller to make it more familiar for young people. According to research discussed at the 2008 Convention of the American Psychological Association, certain types of video games can improve the gamers' dexterity as well as their ability to problem-solve. A study of 33 laparoscopic surgeons found that those who played video games were 27 percent faster at advanced surgical procedures and made 37 percent fewer errors compared to those who did not play video games. A second study of 303 laparoscopic surgeons (82 percent men; 18 percent women) also showed that surgeons who played video games requiring spatial skills and hand dexterity and then performed a drill testing these skills were significantly faster at their first attempt and across all 10 trials than the surgeons who did
[64]

not play the video games first. Whilst many studies have detected superior mental aptitudes amongst habitual gamers, research by Walter Boot at the University of Illinois found that non-gamers showed no improvement in memory or multitasking abilities after 20 hours of playing three different games. The researchers suggested that "individuals with superior abilities are more likely to choose video gaming as an activity in the
[65]

first place". Unreliable - Discuss

Controversy
Like related forms of media, computer and video games have been the subject of frequent controversy and censorship, due to the depiction of graphic violence, sexual themes, advergaming (a form of advertising in games), consumption of drugs, consumption of alcohol or tobacco, propaganda, or profanity in some games. Among others, critics of video games often include parents' groups, politicians, organized religious groups, and other advocacy groups. Various games have been accused of causing addiction and even violent behavior, though how much ground this holds is debatable. "Video game censorship" is defined as the use of state or group power to control the playing, distribution, purchase, or sale of video games or computer games. Video game controversy comes in many forms, and censorship is a controversial subject. Proponents and opponents of censorship are often very passionate about their individual views. Various national content rating organizations, such as the Entertainment Software Ratings Board or ESRB in North America, rate software for certain age groups and with certain content warnings. Some of these organizations are optional industry self-regulation (such as the ESRB), while others are part of national government censorship organizations. Most video games display their rating on the front side of their packaging. However, parents are not always aware of the existence of these ratings. Not all ratings are considered
[66]

accurate. Organizations such as What They Play and Common Sense Media aim to provide guidance and advice for parents. Ratings and censorship

ESRB
The Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) gives videogames maturity ratings based on their content. For example, a game might be rated T for Teen if the game contained obscene words or violence. If a game contains explicit violence or sexual themes, it is likely to receive an M for Mature rating, which means that no one under 17 should play it. There is a rated "A/O" games for "Adults Only" these games have massive violence or nudity. There are no laws that prohibit children from purchasing "M" rated games in the United States. Laws attempting to prohibit minors from purchasing "M" rated games were established in California, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, and Louisiana, but all were overturned on the grounds that the establishment of such laws were in violation of a child's First Amendment rights. However, many stores have opted to not sell such games to children anyway. Of course, video game laws vary from

country to country. One of the most controversial games of all time, Manhunt 2 by Rockstar Studios, was denied a rating by the ESRB until Rockstar could make the content more suitable for a mature audience. Video game manufacturers usually exercise tight control over the games that are made available on their systems, so unusual or special-interest games are more likely to appear as PC games. Free, casual, and browser-based games are usually played on available computers, mobile phones, or PDAs.

PEGI
Pan European Game Information (PEGI) is a system that was developed to standardize the game ratings in all of Europe (not just European Union, although the majority are EU members), the current members are: all EU members, except Germany and the 10 accession states; Norway; Switzerland. Iceland is expected to join soon, as are the 10 EU accession states. For all PEGI members, they
[67]

use it as their sole system, with the exception of the UK, where if a game contains certain material,

it must be rated by BBFC. The
[68

PEGI ratings are legally binding in Vienna and it is a criminal offence to sell a game to someone if it is rated above their age. Germany: BPjM and USK Stricter game rating laws mean that Germany does not operate within the PEGI. Instead, they adopt their own system of certification which is required by law. The Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK or Voluntary Certification of Entertainment Software) checks every game before release and assigns an age rating to it - either none (white), 6 years of age (yellow), 12 years of age (green), 16 years of age (blue) or 18 years of age (red). It is forbidden for anyone, retailers, friends or parents alike, to allow a child access to a game for which he or she is underage. If a game is particularly violent, it may be referred to the BPjM (Bundesprüfstelle für jugendgefährdende Medien Federal Verification Office for Child-Endangering Media) who may opt to place it on the Index upon which the game may not be sold openly or advertised in the open media. Unofficially, the titles are not "banned" - adult gamers are still technically free to obtain the titles by other means, although it is still considered a felony to supply these titles to a child.

Commercial aspects
Game sales
The three largest producers of and markets for computer and video games (in order) are North America (US and Canada), Japan and the
[69]

United Kingdom. Other significant markets include Australia, Spain, Germany, South Korea, Mexico, France and Italy.
[70]

Both India

and China are considered emerging markets in the video game industry and sales are expected to rise significantly in the coming years. Irish are the largest per capita consumers of video games. Sales of different types of games vary widely between these markets due to local preferences. Japanese consumers tend to purchase much more console games than computer games, with a strong preference for games catering to local tastes.

Another key difference is that, despite the decline of arcades in the Western world (see Golden age of video arcade games), arcade games remain the largest sector of the Japanese gaming industry. As of 2009, the Japanese gaming industry is worth $20 billion,
[71]

including $6 billion from arcades, $3.5 billion from console game sales, and $2 billion from mobile game sales.

In South Korea,

computer games are generally preferred over console games, especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games. There are over 20,000 Internet cafés in South Korea where computer games can be played for an hourly charge. Computer games are also preferred in
[72]

China, which has a PC gaming industry worth $6 billion, the largest in the world.

The NPD Group tracks computer and video game sales in the United States. It reported in 2004 that: • •
[73]

Console and portable software sales: $6.2 billion, up 8% from 2003
[73]

Console and portable hardware and accessory sales: $3.7 billion, down 35% from 2003
[74]

• PC game sales: $1.1 billion, down 15% from 2006 such as Steam are not tracked by the NPD, and

PC games that are digitally distributed either directly or by networks
[75]

Valve does not list sales numbers for games downloaded through their service. Unauthorized distribution is also rampant on the PC. These figures are sales in dollars, not units, Unit shipments for each category were higher than the dollar sales numbers indicate, because more software and hardware was discounted than in 2003. But with the release of the next-generation consoles in 2006, these numbers increased dramatically.