Grammar Final

Grammar Final: Study Guide

Noun: A person, place, or thing (or an idea or activity)

Common Nouns – general, not specific, not capitalized Proper Nouns – specific, capitalized Gerund Nouns – a verb that, having added, ‘ing’ is a noun i.e running: a noun, but ‘to run’ is a verb

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
The boy is in love. boy: common noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence love: common noun

Skipping through Central Park is energizing.
Skipping: gerund noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence
Central Park: proper noun

Watching the movie made me feel sick.
Watching: gerund noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence movie: common noun

*When using a gerund, use the possessive pronoun i.e His running is amazing. His: possessive pronoun running: gerund

Note: all months are capitalized all languages are capitalized
Note: all months are capitalized all languages are capitalized

Verbals: When a verb functions as another part of speech

Participle: Starts out as a verb --- adjective (with ‘ing) Gerund: Starts out as a verb --- noun (with ‘ing’) Infinitive: to + verb (verbs that have not been conjugated)

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
The starving beggar asked for food. starving: participle, verb functioning as an adjective describing beggar
Running was the man’s favorite exercise. running: gerund, verb functioning as a common noun

The boy loved to dance. to dance: infinitive

Adjectives: Words that modify nouns and pronouns, “descriptive words”

Articles – a, an, the Participle - Starts out as a verb --- adjective (with ‘ing) Common adjective – normal adjective describing a noun or pronoun Proper adjective – a word that modifies a noun or pronoun but is also a Proper Noun Number – a number modifying a noun or pronoun

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Annabel found shiny pennies.
Annabel: proper noun, functioning as the subject of the sentence shiny: common adjective, describing/modifying ‘pennies’

The girl ate an apple.
The: article, functioning as an adjective an: article, functioning as an adjective

Ingrid tripped over the sleeping beggar. sleeping: participle, functioning as an adjective, describing/modifying ‘beggar’

I walk to English class.
English: describes/modifies class, proper noun

I had one cookie. one: adjective (number) modifying cookie

Verbs: The part of speech that expresses existence, action, or occurrence functions as the simple predicate in a sentence

Action verb Helping verb State of being verb Linking verb

Adverbs: Words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The word answers the questions how, when, why, under what circumstances, and to what extent.

List of words that look like adverbs but are NOT: friendly lonely neighborly lovely motherly deadly fatherly
List of words that look like adverbs but are NOT: friendly lonely neighborly lovely motherly deadly fatherly

Phrase: a group of words (group meaning two or more)

Prepositions: in to by for from with over under among towards beneath around through above below across behind beside

Prepositional Phrase: beginning with a preposition, and then ending with a noun that functions as the object of the preposition

EXAMPLE SENTENCES:
In the store
In: preposition the: article, functioning as an adjective store: common noun, functioning as the object of the preposition

By the river
By: preposition the: article, functioning as an adjective river: common noun, functioning as the object of the preposition

Conjunctions: A word that connects two parts of speech or two sentences

Coordinating conjunctions – for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so (F.A.N.B.O.Y.S) Subordination conjunctions – although, as if, as, as though, after*, because, before*, even, even if, even though, if, *since, when, while, whenever, wherever, unless, until*, than, so that

EXAMPLES SENTENCES
Billy ate an apple and a pear. and: coordinating conjunction, connecting two parts of speech

Joe ate a hot dog, but he was still hungry. but: coordinating conjunction, connect two sentences

Although Sally was upset, she still smiled. although: subordinating conjunction, beginning a complex sentence

Pronoun: A word that replaces a preceding noun

Personal Pronoun - Nominative Case – used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence Objective Case – used when the pronoun is the object, direct object, or object of the preposition Possessive Case – used to show possession (two types: used as an adjective or pronoun)
Antecedent: what comes before, the preceding noun
Antecedent: what comes before, the preceding noun

Nominative Case | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | I | We | 2nd Person | You | You | 3rd Person | He/she/it | they |

Objective Case | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | Me | Us | 2nd Person | You | You | 3rd Person | Him/her/it | them |

Possessive Case –used as an adjective | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | my | Our | 2nd Person | Your | Your | 3rd Person | His/her/its | their |
Possessive Case – used as a pronoun | Singular | Plural | 1st Person | mine | ours | 2nd Person | yours | yours | 3rd Person | His/hers/its | theirs |

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
The baby is crying. She has the flu. baby: proper noun, antecedent
She: personal pronoun in the nominative case, 3rd person singular, replacing ‘baby’

Nick hated Joyce. He was mean to her.
Joyce: proper noun, antecedent her: personal pronoun in the objective case, 3rd person singular, replacing ‘Joyce’

The dog wagged its tail. dog: common noun, antecedent its: personal pronoun in the possessive case (used as an adjective), 3rd person singular, replacing ‘dog’

Max bought the apple, so it was his.
Max: proper noun, antecedent his: personal pronoun in the possessive case (used as a pronoun), 3rd person singular, replacing ‘Max’

Apostrophe: to show possession or ownership

Singular Possessive – when the owner is singular: noun + ‘apostrophe s’ Plural Possessive – when the owners are plural: plural noun + ‘apostrophe’ Names ending in ‘s’ – name ending in ‘s’ + ‘apostrophe s’ To show shared ownership – apostrophe ending is put onto last owner To show more than one person's ownership at once – apostrophe ending is put onto each owner
Exceptions to the usage of Names ending in ‘s’: Rule stands for all names ending in ‘s’ besides iconic figures with names ending in ‘s’
Iconic Figure with name ending in ‘s’ – name ending in ‘s’ + ‘apostrophe’ i.e Jesus’ disciples are loyal.
*Iconic Figure: NOT celebrities
Exceptions to the usage of Names ending in ‘s’: Rule stands for all names ending in ‘s’ besides iconic figures with names ending in ‘s’
Iconic Figure with name ending in ‘s’ – name ending in ‘s’ + ‘apostrophe’ i.e Jesus’ disciples are loyal.
*Iconic Figure: NOT celebrities
EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Maddy’s grandmother was kind. The grandmother of Maddy was kind
Maddy’s: proper noun + ‘apostrophe s’

The boys’ teacher is young. The teacher of the boys is young. boys’: plural noun + ‘apostrophe’

Dr. Rowes’s class was fun. The class of Dr. Rowes was fun.
Dr. Rowes’s: proper noun ending in ‘s’ + ‘apostrophe s’

Ashley and Maria’s friend is lovely. The friend of Ashley and Maria is lovely.
Maria: proper noun, showing shared ownership – ‘apostrophe s’ added onto last owner

Ashley’s and Maria’s friends are lovely.
Ashley’s and Maria’s – showing ownership of different things, each get ‘apostrophe s’ ending

Attributive Noun: A proper or common noun that functions as an adjective i.e Nicole was invited by the Reisman family to have dinner with them. Reisman: attributive noun, describing family, acts as an adjective

Quotation: the exact words of someone else in writing or in speech Must have an attribution: the source of the quote

When the attribution precedes the quote:
The attribution ends with a comma or a colon.
- Comma is used most commonly
- Colon is used when the person speaking is distinguished, the quote is very important, or when the quote comes from a text
- Double quote marks follow

When the attribution precedes the quote:
The attribution ends with a comma or a colon.
- Comma is used most commonly
- Colon is used when the person speaking is distinguished, the quote is very important, or when the quote comes from a text
- Double quote marks follow

When the attribution comes after the quote:
- The attribution is lowercase UNLESS it is proper noun
When the attribution comes after the quote:
- The attribution is lowercase UNLESS it is proper noun

Punctuation of a Quotation: ALWAYS use DOUBLE quote marks: “ “ * The first letter of the quote is always capitalized * If the attribution precedes the quote: The quote ends in a period, exclamation point, or question mark INSIDE double quote marks. * If the attribution comes after the quote: The quote ends in a comma, exclamation point, or question mark. **Never a period

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Mark Antony said: “When that the poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept.”
“When that the poor hath cried, Caesar hath wept,” Mark Antony said.

Billy cried, “Do you love me?”
“I do!” responded Samantha.

Paraphrase: taking the essential ideas of someone else in speech or writing * Ideas must be changed into one’s own * The writer or speaker must be included * Use the word ‘that’ to transition into the paraphrase

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Mark Antony said that Caesar sobbed when the poor cried.

Samantha said that she did love Billy.

Clauses: A subject, verb, and a thought

Independent Clause – a subject, verb, and complete thought (simple sentence) Dependent Clause – a subject, verb, and incomplete thought (fragment

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
I like pizza.
Independent Clause (contains a subject, verb, and a complete thought – simple sentence)

I hate
Dependent Clause (contains a subject, verb, and incomplete thought – fragment)

Sentence Structure: starts with a simple sentence Simple Sentence – a subject, verb, and a complete thought (an independent clause) Compound Sentence – two simple sentences (or independent clauses) joined by a coordination conjunction Complex Sentence – one independent clause, one dependent clause, including a subordinating conjunction w/compound predicate and compound subject
Maddy and Jan walked and fed the dog. w/compound predicate and compound subject
Maddy and Jan walked and fed the dog. w/compound predicate
Maddy walked and fed the dog. walked and fed: compound predicate w/compound predicate
Maddy walked and fed the dog. walked and fed: compound predicate w/compound subject
Maddy and Jan walk the dog.
Maddy and Jan: compound subject w/compound subject
Maddy and Jan walk the dog.
Maddy and Jan: compound subject
Simple Sentence
Sally loves Billy.
Sally: subject loves: verb
Billy: direct object
Simple Sentence
Sally loves Billy.
Sally: subject loves: verb
Billy: direct object
SIMPLE SENTENCE:

COMPOUND SENTENCE:
Basic Construction
Format
______simple sentence______ , _coordinating conjunction_ __simple sentence_

Semi Colon Construction
Basic Format
_______simple sentence ; _______simple sentence___

With an adverbial conjunction ____simple sentence____ ; _________adverbial conjunction____ , _____simple sentence___

With a transitional phrase
_______simple sentence______ ; ________transitional phrase , ______simple sentence___

Adverbial Conjunctions Transitional Phrases accordingly as a result furthermore in addition moreover above all similarly in conclusion also for instance hence for instance namely in fact anyway on the contrary however in particular nevertheless in comparison nonetheless at the same time therefore in truth Note: The semi colon is used to show comparison or contrast. Parallel structures must be used.
Note: The semi colon is used to show comparison or contrast. Parallel structures must be used. EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Billy was hungry; he eyed the chocolate bar.
Billy was hungry: simple sentence
He eyed the chocolate bar: simple sentence

Jan hated Billy’s family; namely, she despised his uncle.
Jan hated Billy’s family: simple sentence namely: adverbial conjunction
She despised his uncle: simple sentence

Jack did not study for his test; as a result, he got a low score.
Jack did not study for his test: simple sentence as a result: transitional phrase
He got a low score: simple sentence

Colon Construction:
Basic Spotlight Format
__simple sentence (MUST BE FULL SENTENCE)____ : ___a few words___

Effect and Cause Format
_____simple sentence____ : ____simple sentence____

List or Series Format
______simple sentence_____ : ____two or more items___

EXAMPLE SENTENCES
Dr. Rowes only gave one good grade on her test: to Natalie.
Dr. Rowes only gave one good grade on her test: simple sentence to Natalie: a few words

Dr. Rowes became sick last night: she ate her own cooking.
Dr. Rowes became sick last night: simple sentence
She ate her own cooking: simple sentence

Billy went to many different colleges on his spring break: Hobart College, Bard College, and Beloit College.
Billy went to many different colleges on his spring break: simple sentence
Hobart College, Bard College, and Beloit College: series or list separated by commas

COMPLEX SENTENCE:
Format
__dependent clause (starting with a subordinating clause)____ , ___simple sentence___

Format option #2
____simple sentence____ _____subordinating conjunction and dependent clause

EXAMPLE SENTENCES:
After the movie ended, John went home.
After the movie ended: dependent clause
After: subordinating clause
John went home: simple sentence

Mark walked his dog before he went to school.
Mark walked his dog: simple sentence
Before he went to school: dependent clause
Special Cases: subordinating conjunctions: than, so that can be used to compare i.e Sally is prettier than Suzie.

subordinating conjunctions: before, after, until, since
ALSO prepositions if only a noun comes after these words, it is NOT a complex sentence**
Before school, Billy went for a walk.
This is a simple sentence because ‘before school’ is a prepositional phrase.
Special Cases: subordinating conjunctions: than, so that can be used to compare i.e Sally is prettier than Suzie.

subordinating conjunctions: before, after, until, since
ALSO prepositions if only a noun comes after these words, it is NOT a complex sentence**
Before school, Billy went for a walk.
This is a simple sentence because ‘before school’ is a prepositional phrase.

subjunctive – what one wishes, desires, etc indicative – what is

Note: Definition of a run-on – two independent clauses punctuated with a comma in between
Note: Definition of a run-on – two independent clauses punctuated with a comma in between