Leadership Diversity In The Army Officer Corps

Leadership Diversity in the Army Officer Corps by Scott R. Johnson

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the course
Leadership and the Process of Change
Organization Psychology

Walden University
Detailed Outline
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………..
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND …………………………………………………….
LITERATURE SEARCH STRATEGY………………………………………………….……..
LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………………………….
RESEARCH SYNTHESIS……………………………………………………………………..
RECRUITING AND ACCESSIONS………………..…………….……………………………
BRANCHING AND ASSIGNMENTS……………………………….…………………………..
COUNSELING, COACHING, AND MENTORING……………….……………………………
RETENTION AND PROMOTIONS..……………………………………………………………
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………….
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………….
Abstract
The topic of this research is diversity of the leadership in the United States Army officer corps. Diversity, as in any large organization/corporation is incredibly important. Diversity not only encompasses fairness across all races, ethnicities, and gender, but it surrounds the benefit of including all races, ethnicities, and gender throughout an organizations leadership. This benefits the organization and subordinates by utilizing different beliefs, cultures, backgrounds, knowledge, experiences, and education to improve the overall performance and effectiveness of the entire organization. The research that was conducted reviews the subject of diversity of Army leadership from point of entry which includes recruiting, and accessions. Once an officer is accessed, the training they receive before they are assigned to a duty station. Once officers begin their career, the mentoring they receive from senior officers that help guide and educate them on the Army and what jobs they should seek in order to become an effective leader. Mentors also focus on educating junior officers on the promotion system and what makes them competitive against their peers. Finally, this research focuses on the strategy of retaining officers that the Army has invested time and money into. This research also focuses on each intricate layer of Army leadership in the officer corps, and identifies the key components. Finally, this research discusses the importance of diversity in the Army officer corps and the implications of the lack of diversity.
Introduction Section
Background

Diversity of the leadership in the United States Army officer corps is important as the Army is an ambassador or representation of our society. The Army represents freedom and the US way of life. The Army must be as diverse as the population that the Army represents. This is important because diverse organizations have proven to be more effective through the use of diverse thoughts, talents, beliefs, cultures, backgrounds, knowledge, experiences, and education. It is the inclusion of diversity in all ranks and job fields that maximizes the full potential of diversity in organizations. Previous research has shown that diverse organizations are more productive, effective, and have less employee turn-over as less diverse organizations due to employee satisfaction is their jobs. Employees that feel they have an equal opportunity to succeed, and feel that their leadership cares about them will work hard as part of a functional and performance oriented team. Previous research supports this theory that diversity improves employee satisfaction, and effectiveness of diverse organizations. This is important not only for soldiers and leaders in the Army, but is important that the US population understands this as well. If the population understands that the Army is diverse and inclusive, this will enhance the recruiting effort. Citizens will seek to become junior officers and be a part of a goal oriented, diverse organization that provides opportunities for everyone based on their talents and performance and not based on their race, ethnic background, or their gender.
Literature Search Strategy The topic of this paper surrounds the diversity of the leadership in the United States Army officer corps. The research conducted reviewed the diversity of leadership from recruiting, through accessions, training, mentoring, promotions, and retention. The strategy I used was to identify each intricate layer of Army leadership in the officer corps. After identifying the key components of the officer corps, I identified key words to search. Some key words I that I used to search were leadership, Army, military, diversity, leadership theories, effective leadership, and leadership mentoring. The key sites that I used for research were the Walden library, the Thoreau database, the Marine Corps University library, and the Pentagon research library. I was also able to discover pertinent articles sited in some of the articles that I researched. Outside of these sources, I researched the Army Regulation (AR) 600-100, Army Leadership.
Literature Review The literature used in this research supports the topic of leadership diversity in the Army officer corps through several facets. As diversity is a topic of research in many organizations and corporations. This topic affects every facet of the organization from recruiting, training, promotions, employee satisfaction, retention, and management/leaders. Leadership diversity is a topic that doesn’t just affect the United States, but other countries as well. As Woodward and Winter (n.d.). discuss diversity as it applies to the British Army, and the similar challenges they face with gender and the limits to diversity as it applies to gender and gender specific jobs. These authors discuss diversity in leadership along the lines of equal opportunity and diversity management policies and how these policies apply to women who serve in the British Army (Woodward & Winter, n.d.). Woodward and Winter (n.d.) also discuss not only about policy frameworks for women 's military participation, but also about the construction of ideas about gender and difference as it applies to jobs and positions of responsibility. Bass (1997) discusses transactional and transformational leadership and how these leadership styles transcend both organizational and national boundaries. Bass (1997) discusses the universality of these leadership phenomena, and argues that the same formation of phenomena and relationships can be observed throughout many types of organizations and even many cultures. The author offers supportive evidence that was gathered in studies conducted in organizations, businesses, education, the military, the government, and the independent sector from almost every continent (Bass, 1997). This supports the topic of leadership diversity as the US Army and its leaders are from all races and ethnicities, as well as gender. Conger, Kanungo, and Menon (2000) discuss charismatic leadership and follower effects. They discuss current theories of charismatic leadership and several possible follower effects. The authors hypothesized that followers of charismatic leaders could be distinguished by their greater reverence, trust, and satisfaction with their leader and by a heightened sense of collective identity, perceived group task performance, and feelings of empowerment (Conger, Kanungo, & Menon, 2000). The authors created a scale (Conger-Kanungo charismatic leadership scale) that measures the authors hypothesized follower effects (Conger, Kanungo, & Menon, 2000). The research conducted by the authors was a sampling of managers using structural equation modeling. The results of their research show a strong relationship between follower reverence and charismatic leadership. Finally, the effect of racism and perceived racism has a tremendous effect on leadership in any organization. Triana, García, and Colella (2010) examined whether the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment can be mitigated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. This can be seen in the Army as perceptions of leaders and equality in promotions across the different races and ethnicities, and even gender, affects the perceived potential of people to become leaders in the Army. Triana, García, and Colella (2010) conducted three studies where they found that perceptions of workplace racial discrimination are negatively related to affective commitment. In 2 out of 3 studies, this negative relationship was lessened as employees perceived more organizational efforts to support diversity (Triana, García, & Colella, 2010). The results showed that when organizational efforts to support diversity are high, the negative relationship between perceived racial discrimination and affective commitment became stronger. The authors also showed that the interaction of perceived racial discrimination and organizational efforts to support diversity indirectly influenced turnover intent (Triana, García, & Colella, 2010).
Research Synthesis The purpose of this research is to elucidate the key disparate trends in officer diversity. The areas of influence that pertain to this research are recruiting, accessions, branching (and posting), assignments, counseling, coaching, mentorship, retention, and promotions. The topic of research – Leadership Diversity in the Army Officer Corps was conducted utilizing a mixed method approach using a sequential explanatory strategy. The research uses a combination of raw data from the Army’s officer personnel system coupled with literature reviews that consist of questionnaires and interviews to support the hypothesis. This research discusses the behavior and relationship of diversity of the leadership in the United States Army officer corps. The importance of this topic begins with the fact that the Army is a representation of our society. The Army represents freedom and the US way of life. The Army must be as diverse as the population that the Army represents (Budescu & Budescu, 2012). This is important because diverse organizations have proven to be more effective due to the use of diverse thoughts, talents, beliefs, cultures, backgrounds, knowledge, experiences, and education (Alderfer, 2003). It is the inclusion of diversity in all ranks and job fields that maximizes the full potential of diversity in organizations. Previous research has shown that diverse organizations are more productive, effective, and have less employee turn-over than less diverse organizations due to employee satisfaction is their jobs (Berthoud & Ray, 2010). Employees that feel they have an equal opportunity to succeed, and feel that their leadership cares about them will work hard as part of a functional and performance oriented team (Berthoud & Ray, 2010). . Previous research supports this theory that diversity improves employee satisfaction, and effectiveness of diverse organizations (Berthoud & Ray, 2010). This is important not only for soldiers and leaders in the Army, but is important that the US population understands this as well. If the population understands that the Army is diverse and inclusive, this will enhance the recruiting effort. Citizens will seek to become junior officers and be a part of a goal oriented, diverse organization that provides opportunities for everyone based on their talents and performance and not based on their race, ethnic background, or their gender (Woodward & Winter, n.d). Some of the challenges discussed in this research is also applicable to women officers; however, there are additional trends related to women that are not adequately documented and lack previous documented research – so specific research to women has been left out of this research. In consideration of the unique concerns of women officers, as well as evolving changes in opportunities for women, separate research needs to be conducted in order to accurately include women in the service. The research conducted is insufficient to include warrant officers and non-commissioned officers (NCO). Future research is needed and further consideration given to address the topic of warrant officers and NCOs. The strategic objectives of this research will help prepare the current and future Army for a changing America, including the ability to recruit, develop, and retain America’s brightest talent, while integrating diverse attributes, experiences, and backgrounds into the Army in ways that enhance decision-making and inspire high performance and esprit de corps. The enclosed research addresses disparate trends in officer management and is an example of diversity and inclusion that will sustain an inclusive environment and ensure our long-term success in attracting and advancing highly qualified officers from diverse backgrounds. This discussion of selected disparate trends will follow the normal Army officer career progression, including attracting cadets to commissioning sources and progressing through branching, assignments, professional development, promotions, and retention. Army officer trends requiring attention and specific actions include: accession of officers from diverse backgrounds; minority officer selections to serve in combat arms branches, minority officer assignment locations, counseling, coaching, and mentorship; and other developmental opportunities that may impact promotions and retention. There are several trends that have impacted promotion selection rates for minority officers; however, separate research needs to be conducted to uncover the different facets behind this disparate trend. This topic warrants its own study to address these disparate trends and identify the systematic process of changing these trends. In fact, recent anomalies have also surfaced in selection rates for promotion to captain and higher that should be addressed in further research. The Army’s most critical officer accession gap applies to Hispanic officers. As of Fiscal Year 2012, Hispanics made up approximately 6% of the Active Army officer corps, which does not compare favorably with 12% of Army enlisted Soldiers and 16.5% of the nation’s 18- to 24-year old college students including more than 13% of four-year college students. The Army’s second most critical officer accession shortfall is African American males, who currently make up less than 10% of Active Army male officers compared to African American enlisted males who make up more than 18% of male enlisted Soldiers. Although over 5% of male college students are African American, well over half of those students are in community colleges or for-profit institutions. Conversely, women make up approximately one-fourth of active duty women Army officers and nearly two-thirds of African American undergraduate college students. In addition, the last few years show an overall decline in African American accessions in the officer corps. Although overall national high school graduation rates have improved beyond 78%, the Hispanic rate of 71% and African American rate of 66% are indications that focused efforts must continue. Asian American and Pacific Islander officer representation (approximately 5% of Army Competitive Category officers) is slightly behind national demographics. The enlisted representation is only 4%. This is the fastest growing segment of the U.S. population and in need of continued emphasis (Choi & Rainey, n.d). The diversity among officers serving in selected branches can have a significant impact on the demographics of officers competitive for senior-level command and ultimately flag rank (Hogan & Hogan, 2001). Historically, a majority of general officers in the Army Competitive Category have come from basic branches in the Combat Arms fields such as infantry, armor and field artillery. Optimally, the demographics of each male officer cohort should be reflected across all branches and all grades (Homan, van Knippenberg, Van Kleef, & De Dreu, n.d). However, for a variety of reasons, disparate trends in officer branch demographics have existed for at least two decades. These disparate trends are generally applicable to male minority officers. Minority male officer participation in combat arms branches has been limited by cadet branch preferences and overall performance factors that affect opportunities within respective branch assignment processes. African Americans have the most limited preference for and participation in combat arms, followed by Hispanic and Asian Pacific American officers. Although African Americans make up more than 12% of Army Competitive Category officers, overall combat arms participation is only 7%, with average junior officer representation in Infantry, Armor, and Field Artillery at 6%. This research focused on assignments of company grade officers over the last ten years. The research concluded that minority officers may be disadvantaged in career progression opportunities because of the type of assignments they receive as junior officers. Research shows that minority officers also had a higher probability of commanding a headquarters element rather than a line element. This research shows a disproportionate representation across branches and functional categories. Counseling, coaching, and mentoring officers can help identify these disproportionate trends (Lilienfeld et al., 2012).
The research conducted shows that mentorship is critical to future accession of minority officers into combat arms. The research also added that mentorship should be voluntary, but highly encouraged (Lilienfeld et al., 2012). Positive results take time to achieve, and mentoring should begin with entry into a commissioning program (Lilienfeld et al., 2012). Leaders have three principal ways of developing others: providing knowledge and feedback through counseling, coaching and mentoring (Morand, 2001). In general, counseling guides subordinates to improve their performance and develop their potential. Coaching helps individuals understand the current level of performance or expertise and provides guidance on reaching their goals and achieving the next level of knowledge and skill—often through a development plan (Morand, 2001). Mentorship is the voluntary developmental relationship that exists between a person of greater experience and a person of lesser experience that is characterized by mutual trust and respect (Piccolo, Greenbaum, Den Hartog, & Folger, n.d). This research identified an underlap in research along the lines of cross-race mentoring. Further analysis of the challenges associated with mentoring individuals from different and diverse backgrounds should be conducted to uncover any issues associated with mentoring individuals of other cultures and
races. Leaders should provide clear direction on responsibilities and expectations to develop subordinates, including identification of strengths and weaknesses, face-to-face counseling, training and education, and remedial action where appropriate (Kilburg, & Donohue, 2011). Leaders also help their subordinates do the same for the people they supervise (Kilburg, & Donohue, 2011). As the diversity of the officer corps increases, the outcomes of our efforts must be that all experienced leaders are willing to counsel, coach, and mentor any officer from any background (Hogan & Hogan, 2001). Every Army leader should be committed to ensuring the best possible follow-on leadership for the Army. In addition, and of equal importance, cadets must be taught the value of and mechanics of counseling, coaching and mentorship (Hogan & Hogan, 2001). Officers entering the Army must understand the need to acquire mentors for themselves based on a trust relationship and have an expectation of counseling and coaching from their chain of command, while providing the same to their subordinates (Hogan & Hogan, 2001). This research looked at where Army officers were geographically assigned and satisfaction for those assignments. Research shows that minority officers are overrepresented at training installations versus deploying installations. Some of these trends may be due to the branch assignment challenges discussed previously. In other cases it may be at least partially due to individual preference for a particular location. The individual preference for installations close to home or where there may be a comfortable environment due to high minority representation can be addressed through coaching and mentorship. A fundamental assumption is that the promotion process is fair and meets the needs of the Army while ensuring equality. Any discussion of those procedures is beyond the scope of this document and merits further research. Many of the challenges at the time of consideration for promotion are assumed to be related to the previous discussion of disparate trends or other factors that have not been considered. Consistently low selection rates are an indication that counseling, coaching, mentoring, assignments, and other inputs to professional development may need to be continuously reviewed to ensure all officers have the opportunity to pursue growth commensurate with their potential. These same inputs to professional development can also impact retention. Second order effects such as confidence levels, trust, motivation, teamwork and other factors can be enhanced by leader engagement and lead to a higher level of job satisfaction (Conge, Kanungo, & Menon, 2000). The population from which we draw our officers will continue to grow in diversity. The disparate trend challenges discussed in this document must be addressed now for the benefit of our current officer corps, and to better posture the Army for the increasingly diverse officer corps of the future. Furthermore, it takes years of implementation to address the gaps in cohort year groups. Special emphasis needs to be given to each element addressed in this study in order to ensure diversity and inclusion in the Army officer corps.
References
Alderfer, C. P. (2003). Diversity experts respond. Diversity Factor, 11(3), 14.
Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries?. American Psychologist, 52(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130
Berthoud, H., & Ray, J. (2010). Diversity initiative in a social change organization: a case study. TAMARA: Journal Of Critical Postmodern Organization Science, 8(3/4), 62-88.
Blokland, T., & van Eijk, G. (2010). Do people who like diversity practice diversity in neighbourhood life? Neighbourhood use and the social networks of 'diversity-seekers ' in a mixed neighbourhood in the Netherlands. Journal Of Ethnic And Migration Studies, 36(2), 313-332.
Budescu, D. V., & Budescu, M. (2012). How to measure diversity when you must. Psychological Methods, 17(2), 215-227.
Byeong Yong, K. (2006). Managing workforce diversity: Developing a learning organization. Journal Of Human Resources In Hospitality & Tourism, 5(2), 69-90. doi:10.1300/J171v05n0205
Choi, S., & Rainey, H. (n.d). Managing diversity in US federal agencies: Effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 109-121.
Conger, J. A., Kanungo, R. N., & Menon, S. T. (2000). Charismatic leadership and follower effects. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 21(7), 747-767.
Hogan, R. R., & Hogan, J. J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view from the dark side. International Journal Of Selection And Assessment, 940-51.
Homan, A., van Knippenberg, D., Van Kleef, G., & De Dreu, C. (n.d). Bridging faultlines by valuing diversity: Diversity beliefs, information elaboration, and performance in diverse work groups. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1189-1199.
Kilburg, R. R., & Donohue, M. D. (2011). Toward a "grand unifying theory" of leadership: Implications for consulting psychology. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research, 63(1), 6-25. doi:10.1037/a0023053
Lehrman, W. G. (1994). Diversity in decline: Institutional environment and organization failure in the American life insurance industry. Social Forces, 73(2), 605-635.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Waldman, I. D., Landfield, K., Watts, A. L., Rubenzer, S., & Faschingbauer, T. R. (2012). Fearless dominance and the U.S. presidency: Implications of psychopathic personality traits for successful and unsuccessful political leadership. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 103(3), 489-505. doi:10.1037/a0029392
Magnusson, E. (2011). Women, men, and all the other categories: Psychologies for theorizing human diversity. Nordic Psychology, 63(2), 88-114. doi:10.1027/1901-2276/a000034
Morand, D. A. (2001). The emotional intelligence of managers: Assessing the construct validity of a nonverbal measure of "people skills". Journal Of Business And Psychology, 16(1), 21-33.
Nuñez, A., & Crisp, G. (2012). Ethnic diversity and Latino/a college access: A comparison of Mexican American and Puerto Rican beginning college students. Journal Of Diversity In Higher Education, 5(2), 78-95. doi:10.1037/a0026810
Piccolo, R., Greenbaum, R., Den Hartog, D., & Folger, R. (n.d). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 31(2-3), 259-278.
Roberson, Q., & Stevens, C. (n.d). Making sense of diversity in the workplace: Organizational justice and language abstraction in employees ' accounts of diversity-related incidents. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 379-391.
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Triana, M., García, M., & Colella, A. (2010). Managing diversity: How organizational efforts to support diversity moderate the effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment. Personnel Psychology, 63(4), 817-843. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01189.x van Knippenberg, D., & Haslam, S. (n.d). Unity through diversity: Value-in-diversity beliefs, work group diversity, and group identification. Group Dynamics-Theory Research And Practice, 11(3), 207-222.
Woodward, R., & Winter, P. (n.d). Gender and the limits to diversity in the contemporary British Army. Gender Work And Organization, 13(1), 45-67.
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Xiaoxing, Z., Austin, S., & Glass, J. (2008). Understanding values diversity within the organisation: A case study in UK construction. International Journal Of Diversity In Organisations, Communities & Nations, 8(5), 57-68. Annotated Bibliography
Alderfer, C. P. (2003). Diversity experts respond. Diversity Factor, 11(3), 14. This article focuses on diversity in the workplace and intervention strategies for leadership within the organization. The author discusses the problems faced by leadership in managing an organization, and an assessment of the need for diversity intervention programs in organizations. The author also discusses the evaluation of the role of cultural differences in the development of an organization.

Bass, B. M. (1997). Does the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm transcend organizational and national boundaries?. American Psychologist, 52(2), 130-139. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.52.2.130 This article discusses the universality in the transactional–transformational leadership paradigm. That is, the same formation of phenomena and relationships can be observed throughout many types of organizations and even many cultures. The author discusses the exceptions to this rule, and how it can be understood as a consequence of unusual attributes of those organizations and cultures. The author offers supportive evidence that was gathered in studies conducted in organizations, businesses, education, the military, the government, and the independent sector. Further, evidence has been accumulated from all but one continent to document the applicability of this paradigm.

Berthoud, H., & Ray, J. (2010). Diversity initiative in a social change organization: a case study. TAMARA: Journal Of Critical Postmodern Organization Science, 8(3/4), 62-88. In this article, the authors discuss the rationale and process for an organization-wide diversity initiative in a national political organization. Approaches and models used to address systemic organization change for racial inclusion in a social justice framework are reviewed throughout this research. The authors discuss the initial results, including emerging cultural change and secondary benefits of the initiative. In summary, the authors conclude with the challenges and expectations of expanding the change into programmatic work and for sustainability.

Blokland, T., & van Eijk, G. (2010). Do people who like diversity practice diversity in neighbourhood life? Neighbourhood use and the social networks of 'diversity-seekers ' in a mixed neighbourhood in the Netherlands. Journal Of Ethnic And Migration Studies, 36(2), 313-332. The authors discuss some urban policies in various countries that aim at integrating minorities into the mainstream society through combating residential segregation. One strategy they discuss is to change the housing and neighborhoods. Assuming that the middle classes leave certain neighborhoods because they lack suitable dwellings and build more expensive houses is an important policy in the Netherlands. The authors discuss how living in the proximity of other income groups is in itself insufficient to overcome racial, ethnic, and class divides in a social framework. Further, the authors discuss the policy of indicating or defining the middle class through income and how that is not a very good predictor for the diversity of groups of people living in mixed neighborhoods. The authors continue to define what the best process for distinguishing people and social groups or networks. The author argues that attracting people to an area because of its diversity may contribute to the economic viability of local businesses and possibly to the nature of interactions in society or in public settings.

Budescu, D. V., & Budescu, M. (2012). How to measure diversity when you must. Psychological Methods, 17(2), 215-227. This article discusses how racial/ethnic diversity has become an increasingly important and existent variable amongst the social sciences. The author discusses how researchers use a variety of measures, coupled with their choices can affect the conclusions and limit the ability to accurately compare and generalize results as it applies to diversity. The author provides five examples using the generalized variance and entropy statistics, and illustrates their versatility and flexibility. The author urges researchers to adopt the multi-category measures and to use their discussion to determine which measure of diversity is most appropriate.

Byeong Yong, K. (2006). Managing workforce diversity: Developing a learning organization. Journal Of Human Resources In Hospitality & Tourism, 5(2), 69-90. doi:10.1300/J171v05n0205 This article presents a study which explores the definitions used in dealing with diversity, clarifies diversity-related concepts, and discusses the benefits of effective diversity management in the hospitality industry. The author discusses how diversity management and how important it is to ensuring success in the unpredictable hospitality market. The author suggests effective diversity management strategies which includes the use of diversity management paradigms and development of a learning organization.

Choi, S., & Rainey, H. (n.d). Managing diversity in US federal agencies: Effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance. Public Administration Review, 70(1), 109-121. This article discusses diversity in the workplace as a central issue for contemporary organizational management. The authors discuss managing increased diversity and how diversity deserves greater concern in public, private, and nonprofit organizations. The authors address the effects of diversity and diversity management on employee perceptions of organizational performance in U.S. federal agencies by developing measures of three variables: diversity, diversity management, and perceived organizational performance. The authors support their findings with information drawn from the Central Personnel Data File, and the 2004 Federal Human Capital Survey. Their findings suggest that racial diversity relates negatively to organizational performance. When moderated by diversity management policies and practices and team processes, however, racial diversity correlates positively with organizational performance. Consequently, gender and age diversity and their interactions with related variables produce mixed results, suggesting that gender and age diversity reflect more complicated relationships. This article provides evidence for several benefits derived from effectively managing diversity.

Conger, J. A., Kanungo, R. N., & Menon, S. T. (2000). Charismatic leadership and follower effects. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 21(7), 747-767. This article discusses the basis of the current theories of charismatic leadership and several possible follower effects. The authors hypothesized that followers of charismatic leaders could be distinguished by their greater reverence, trust, and satisfaction with their leader and by a heightened sense of collective identity, perceived group task performance, and feelings of empowerment. Using the “Conger-Kanungo” charismatic leadership scale and measures of the hypothesized follower effects, the authors conducted a study on a sampling of managers using structural equation modeling. The results of their research show a strong relationship between follower reverence and charismatic leadership. Follower trust and satisfaction, however, are mediated through leader reverence. The authors show that followers ' sense of collective identity and perceived group task performance are affected by charismatic leadership. Feelings of empowerment are mediated through the followers ' sense of collective identity and perceived group task performance.

Hogan, R. R., & Hogan, J. J. (2001). Assessing leadership: A view from the dark side. International Journal Of Selection And Assessment, 940-51. This article discusses the concerns of leadership effectiveness. The authors review the literature on managerial derailment and propose a categorization of derailment factors. The authors describe an inventory designed to assess these factors, provide some evidence regarding the psychometric features of the inventory, and some evidence regarding its validity. The authors further suggest that the base rate for managerial incompetence in any organization is rather high, and propose a useful device for management development because it focuses on dysfunctional dispositions known to be associated with failure of managers.

Homan, A., van Knippenberg, D., Van Kleef, G., & De Dreu, C. (n.d). Bridging faultlines by valuing diversity: Diversity beliefs, information elaboration, and performance in diverse work groups. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1189-1199. In this article, the authors discuss the potential benefits of diversity in work groups and how converging dimensions of diversity often prevent groups from exploiting this potential. In heterogeneous groups, the disruptive effects of diversity fault lines can be overcome by convincing groups of the value of diversity. Groups can be persuaded either of the value of diversity or the value of similarity for group performance. The authors argue that informationally diverse groups perform better when they are pro-diversity rather than pro-similarity, whereas the performance of informationally homogeneous groups are unaffected by diversity beliefs.

Kilburg, R. R., & Donohue, M. D. (2011). Toward a "grand unifying theory" of leadership: Implications for consulting psychology. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice & Research, 63(1), 6-25. doi:10.1037/a0023053 This article discusses the leadership struggles that virtually every coach, consulting engagement, or practitioner faces and the challenge of discriminating between the implicit and explicit leadership models that are used. The authors suggest that developing a teachable point of view is one of the most important steps that leaders can take to guarantee their success. If an integrated theoretical approach to leadership were readily available for leaders, the task of developing such a teaching point of view would be relatively easy. The authors argue that given the current state of available leadership literature, this is easier said than done.

Lehrman, W. G. (1994). Diversity in decline: Institutional environment and organization failure in the American life insurance industry. Social Forces, 73(2), 605-635. This article examines organization failure during a time of realignment in the American life insurance industry, specifically in New York State from 1881 to 1931. The article casts key enactments in the state regulatory environment as indicative of change in the institutional environment. The authors discuss whether pivotal change targeted at distinct organizations affected the survival of those organizations. The authors summarize that the outcome in life insurance is an increasingly uniform, less diverse, industry.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Waldman, I. D., Landfield, K., Watts, A. L., Rubenzer, S., & Faschingbauer, T. R. (2012). Fearless dominance and the U.S. presidency: Implications of psychopathic personality traits for successful and unsuccessful political leadership. Journal Of Personality And Social Psychology, 103(3), 489-505. doi:10.1037/a0029392 This article discusses the idea that psychopathic personality traits marked largely by maladaptive traits are adaptive in certain occupations including leadership positions. The authors tested their hypothesis in the 42 U.S. presidents up to, to include George W. Bush, using three variables. Fearless Dominance, which reflects the boldness associated with psychopathy, was associated with better rated presidential performance, leadership, persuasiveness, crisis management, Congressional relations, and allied variables; it was also associated with several largely or entirely objective indicators of presidential performance, such as initiating new projects and being viewed as a world figure. Impulsive antisociality and related traits of psychopathy were generally unassociated with rated presidential performance, although they were linked to indicators of negative job performance to include Congressional impeachment resolutions and tolerating unethical behavior in subordinates. Their findings support that the boldness associated with psychopathy is an important but neglected predictor of presidential performance. Further, the authors suggest that certain features of psychopathy are tied to successful interpersonal behavior.

Magnusson, E. (2011). Women, men, and all the other categories: Psychologies for theorizing human diversity. Nordic Psychology, 63(2), 88-114. doi:10.1027/1901-2276/a000034 This article discusses psychological theory and research that aims to capture and study human diversity in new ways. Human diversity, increasingly framed in terms of the interrelatedness of social categorizations such as gender, ethnicity/race, social class and sexuality, has recently become the topic of research for many psychologists. This article argues that for psychological research to be able to usefully theorize and study diversity in everyday lives, it needs to find new ways to incorporate the impact on individual lives. Gender studies within psychology have developed bodies of theory and practical research pertaining to many diversity issues that can provide helpful contributions to such developments of psychological theory and research.

Morand, D. A. (2001). The emotional intelligence of managers: Assessing the construct validity of a nonverbal measure of "people skills". Journal Of Business And Psychology, 16(1), 21-33. The author discusses managerial socio-emotional competency (people skills). One problem has been that many such competencies are properly categorized as nonverbal in nature, but typically utilize paper and pencil, verbal, measures to assess them. The author discusses more current research that draws upon emerging literature on emotional intelligence, and cross-cultural universals in the display and recognition of facial expressions of emotion. This article discusses the ability to recognize emotional expressions displayed by others, and how to make this useful in organizations.

Nuñez, A., & Crisp, G. (2012). Ethnic diversity and Latino/a college access: A comparison of Mexican American and Puerto Rican beginning college students. Journal Of Diversity In Higher Education, 5(2), 78-95. doi:10.1037/a0026810 This article indicates the differences among the diverse Latino/a ethnic groups and their K-12 educational experiences. The authors discuss how little is known about variations in their postsecondary experiences. Drawing on a conceptual framework their research examined Mexican American and Puerto Rican students ' college choices and enrollment patterns. Their findings indicated several notable differences between the two ethnic groups, including age and access to cultural, financial, and academic scholarships or funding. Most notably, Mexican American beginning college students were almost twice as likely as their Puerto Rican counterparts to start postsecondary education at 2-year colleges. Their results showed that Mexican American and Puerto Ricans ' decisions to enroll at a 2 or 4-year institution were influenced by the students ' age, culture, academic background, and quantity and quality of the colleges considered. The authors also discuss implications for promoting educational equity among Latino/as and for promoting racial/ethnic diversity in postsecondary institutions.

Piccolo, R., Greenbaum, R., Den Hartog, D., & Folger, R. (n.d). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal Of Organizational Behavior, 31(2-3), 259-278. In this article, the authors suggest that leaders with strong ethical commitments who regularly demonstrate ethical behavior can have an impact on the elements of task significance and autonomy, thereby affecting an employee 's motivation and willingness to put forth effort. This, the authors argue is evidenced by indications of enhanced task performance and organizational citizenship behavior. The authors conducted a field study by surveying pairs of co-workers in a diverse set of organizations. The results provide support for a fully mediated model whereby task significance and effort fully mediate relationships between ethical leadership and subordinates ' job performance.

Roberson, Q., & Stevens, C. (n.d). Making sense of diversity in the workplace: Organizational justice and language abstraction in employees ' accounts of diversity-related incidents. Journal Of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 379-391. This article discusses how to distinguish patterns of employee internalization about workplace diversity. The authors analyzed 751 natural language accounts of diversity incidents from 712 workers in one department of a large organization. Six generic incident types emerged: discrimination, representation, treatment by management, work relationships, respect between groups, and diversity climates. Supportive of their hypotheses, the incidents that respondents viewed as negative, accounts from women, and those involving members of respondents ' within groups were more likely to claim justice issues. Partially consistent with research on intergroup bias, both negative and positive accounts involving out-of-group members and accounts from men were more likely.

Stewart, R., Volpone, S., Avery, D., & McKay, P. (n.d). You support diversity, but are you ethical? Examining the Interactive Effects of Diversity and Ethical Climate Perceptions on Turnover Intentions. Journal Of Business Ethics, 100(4), 581-593. Efforts to identify the backgrounds of employee turnover offer value to organizations through money saved on recruitment and new employee training. The authors utilized the stakeholder perspective to incorporate social responsibility to examine the effects of a perceived climate for ethics on the relationship between diversity climate and voluntary turnover. The authors examined how ethics climate and employee ' perceptions affected the diversity climate-turnover. Results indicated that ethics climate moderated the diversity climate-turnover intentions relationship. Turnover intentions were lowest among workers perceiving both a pro-diversity and highly ethical climate. These results reinforce the need to communicate both diversity values and ethical standards to employees.

Triana, M., García, M., & Colella, A. (2010). Managing diversity: How organizational efforts to support diversity moderate the effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment. Personnel Psychology, 63(4), 817-843. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01189.x Using the interactional model of cultural diversity, the authors examined whether the negative effects of perceived racial discrimination on affective commitment can be mitigated by perceived organizational efforts to support diversity. Across 3 studies they found that perceptions of workplace racial discrimination are negatively related to affective commitment. In 2 out of 3 studies, this negative relationship was lessened as employees perceived more organizational efforts to support diversity. Results showed that when organizational efforts to support diversity are high, the negative relationship between perceived racial discrimination and affective commitment became stronger. The authors also showed that the interaction of perceived racial discrimination and organizational efforts to support diversity indirectly influenced turnover intent.

van Knippenberg, D., & Haslam, S. (n.d). Unity through diversity: Value-in-diversity beliefs, work group diversity, and group identification. Group Dynamics-Theory Research And Practice, 11(3), 207-222. The authors of this article argue that research on work group diversity has more or less neglected the possibility that reactions to diversity may be informed by individuals ' beliefs about the value of diversity for their work group. The authors studied the role of diversity beliefs as a moderator of the relationship between work group diversity and individuals ' identification with the work group. The results support the prediction that work group diversity and group identification are more positively related the more individuals believe in the value of diversity.

Woodward, R., & Winter, P. (n.d). Gender and the limits to diversity in the contemporary British Army. Gender Work And Organization, 13(1), 45-67. This article discusses diversity in the British Army as it applies to equal opportunity and diversity management policies within the British Army. The author discusses how these policies apply to women who serve in the British Army and indicates, not only about policy frameworks for women 's military participation, but also about the construction of ideas about gender and difference within the British Army as an organization. Further, this article explains contextual information about women in the British Army and describes their research methodology about which this article is based. The author discusses the evolution of equal opportunity policies and the recent shift towards diversity management policies in the British Army.
Alderfer, C. P. (2003). Diversity experts respond. Diversity Factor, 11(3), 14.
This article focuses on diversity in the workplace and intervention strategies for leadership within the organization. The author discusses the problems faced by leadership in managing an organization, and an assessment of the need for diversity intervention programs in organizations. The author also discusses the evaluation of the role of cultural differences in the development of an organization.

Wright, M. (n.d). Diversity and the Imagined Community: Immigrant Diversity and Conceptions of National Identity. Political Psychology, 32(5), 837-862. This article presents the idea that as immigrant diversity increases across developed democracies, there is an increasing concern that perceived threats to mainstream interests will produce an ethnocentric response. This study surveys this question with measures that probe respondents ' normative conception of membership in their particular culture. Based on their findings, they show that more immigrant-exclusive definitions of the national in-group are linked to both contextual and individual measures of cultural threat. They also present that perceived economic threat at the individual level is also powerfully linked to the outcome; however, contextual measures of economic prosperity are not. The authors findings support the argument that increasing levels of immigrant diversity are a threat to an inclusive sense of national identity that includes both natives and immigrants.

Xiaoxing, Z., Austin, S., & Glass, J. (2008). Understanding values diversity within the organisation: A case study in UK construction. International Journal Of Diversity In Organisations, Communities & Nations, 8(5), 57-68. This article discusses increasing diversity in the workforce necessitates a better understanding of individual and team differences in the organization. Further, such differences affect the organization itself. Previous research has discussed that diversity in people 's values have consequences for an organization, and is therefore critical in the area of diversity management. Understanding values diversity within the organization is not an easy task, and the difficulties are exacerbated by the shortage of literature offering practical guidance. This particular study presented was conducted in an English construction company using Schwartz 's theoretical framework of human values as a framing device. The authors collected employees ' values profiles and analyzed them through an organizational-wide survey. This process helped to identify shared values, and highlighted differences between various sub-groups. It made the divergence of values clear, thus facilitating mutual understanding within the organization. The authors argued that values diversity should be encouraged and respected within a collectivistic culture, enabling a heterogeneous workforce to work together toward common goals, maximizing the contribution of each member, and ensuring fair treatment for all regardless of background.