Men Are From Mars Women Analysis
Gender Targeting in Print Ads
Nicola Batchelor
Allegedly “Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus.”
What the author of this book, John Gray, meant is that in certain key aspects of behaviour, men and women are so different that it could be argued that they are entirely different species. That these behaviour patterns are so different is due to fundamental differences in how members of each gender perceive themselves, what they aspire to, and how they want to be perceived by members of their own and the opposite sex. These particular attitudes and beliefs can give rise to strong motivational impulses, which can also be triggered to influence purchasing behaviour. Tuning in to these attitudes and values therefore lies at the very heart …show more content…
of the way in which advertisers carefully construct their subliminal appeal.
Adverts for the same products, when focused to different genders seem to be similar in appearance on the surface, but in reality have some very fundamental differences, because “adverts present a particular version of reality which is tailored to fit the presumed attitudes and values of the targeted audience.” (Vestergaard & Schroder 1985:72-3) By comparing content and form of adverts for men with adverts for women for the same products, it is obvious that each uses a very different approach to persuade its respective reader.
fig.1 fig.2 fig.3
The most obvious example of how adverts are adjusted to fit the desires of different groups of people is by comparing the Seiko watch adverts above that appear respectively in a mans magazine, a womans magazine and in a magazine for both men and women. Fig.1 uses a different selling technique than fig.2 and fig.3. Fig.1 is selling a watch to men between the ages of 18-23. It uses its own merits to sell the watch. It simply shows the watch as it is and has a detailed description of what it does and why it is unique and worth buying. When I asked a colleague what he thought of this watch, he simply said ‘I want that watch.’ This shows the mentality of a male, he is not concerned with choosing the best watch for him, he will happily be shown what is considered the most technologically advanced watch is and accept it. There is no other watch in the advert, it is presented as the watch to own, it uses modern technology yet is fashionable and stylish. Therefore it is the only watch a man needs to see. Fig.2 and fig.3 are selling the watches by comparing them to a lifestyle. In fig.2 there is an image of a modern woman, who is relaxed on a modern sofa in a modern setting. The blue colours suggest cool calm and sophisticated. Fig.3 shows a businessman who appears confident yet relaxed. He is inside a very modern building and looking up towards the sky. The whole advert suggests success. These two ads are drawing upon the idea of the ideal life. By associating the product with desirable qualities, they suggest that the purchaser will enjoy a specific lifestyle should they buy the product. Adverts today are made to make us believe that we can rise or fall in society by what we buy. (Williamson 1978:14)
Men and women differ in how they shop which is why the product has used the different types of methods to sell its watches. Fig.1 shows just one watch. A man is less picky about what watch he buys, he is more practical than a woman is, after all a watch is a watch. This advert especially appeals to a mans practicality as it doesn’t use a battery. Similarly fig.3 has only one watch and presents more information on the watch than the woman’s advert does. It focuses on the practicality of the watch rather than the choice or appearance. The female advert (fig2) shows two watches giving the reader choices. Women ponder and like to choose carefully which watch will suit them best. Women consider a watch to be a piece of jewellery. The product Seiko has a slogan “forward Thinking”. The added slogan that goes with the man’s watch in fig.1 is “break the time barrier” whilst the women’s is “moments to treasure”. The advert for fig.1 suggests that a man wants to be able to do things quickly and efficiently. This idea is once again emphasised in fig.3 as the watch only needs a battery changed once every ten years suggesting that this watch will save him time to get on with more important things. The use of ‘moments’ in the woman’s ad insinuates that women like to spend their time doing things they enjoy. Thus a watch for a man is an object to make life easier whilst a watch for a woman is something precious. Fig.3 incidentally appeared just before Christmas in the Sunday Telegraph Magazine, a magazine which is aimed for an older audience than fig.1 and that is read by both men and women. Thus encouraging a woman to see this advert and see that this modern watch would make an ideal Christmas gift. Men and women have different wants and needs, women focus on appearance and outward self whilst men concentrate on money, business and their place in society. (Vestergaard & Schroder 1985:74)
fig.4
fig.5
Men and Women differ in how they perceive themselves; this is evident in fig.4 and fig.5. The advert has put together images from a black and white western film with photos taken for the Wrangler advert. As a European reader we instinctively read the image from left to right. Although half the image is in black and white and the other half in colour we assume that these photo’s link. This is because Fig.4 has a table joining with the picnic table and fig. 5 has the bar joining with the horizon of the landscape. The main focus of the adverts, the denim, is on the right page because this is where are eyes will finish. Fig.4 shows the main character to be in control of a gang of cowboys. He has a banana instead of a gun; this shows that the bloke is still up for a laugh. However, because the cowboys on the left are wary, men are allowed to see themselves as dominating and strong. The cowboy Western image provides a familiar icon of masculinity, independence and ruggedness. There are no women featured in this advert and so the image suggests pure masculine potency. The banana is a phallic image, which emphasises man’s masculinity, which is perceived as very important in today’s society; men have to be shown as being ‘men’, they cannot be effeminate. (Vestergaard & Schroder:1985:74)
Fig.5 has stronger colours, the sky is bluer and there is more of it. Whilst the male advert had the city peeping through the trees, the female advert shows an open plain. The woman is feminine and attractive in appearance and the natural surroundings all imply that she has youth and natural beauty. She is ‘falling’ backwards in a response to being shot at, but in a very stylised way, which suggests it is all done in a fun manner. The image of her body bending backwards in such an awkward manner allows women to see themselves as supple. In the Black and White image the cowboy is firing a gun at her however this is not taken seriously by the girl. Thus it is made to appear that in the ‘reality’ of the photograph perhaps someone is stood aiming a banana at her. The cowboy, played by Alan Ladd is a good looking, calm and cool guy which again draws upon the idea of masculine power and seriousness as opposed to the female relaxed carefree attitude. Goffman believes that adverts do not necessarily depict how men and women behave but they are a good “representation on the way we think they behave.” (Courtney 1983:12)
Fig.6 Fig.7
|Adverts often portray the genders as opposites, increasingly with adverts showing male violence.
Kelner believes that this is because modern advertisements have the difficult task of “stressing gender difference in an era characterized by a loosening of rigid gender distinctions.” (Dines & Humez 1995:135) Research by Marsha Smith (Nottingham Trent University) has shown that an increasing number of men wax their legs and pluck their eyebrows; this increase she believes has arrived not only from the gay culture but because men are more worried about hygiene. There has been an increase of men using the gym and sport like bodybuilding, which has persuaded them to ‘clean’ themselves by removing hair. (Daily Mail 14.01.2003:29) Fig.6 and fig.7 are good examples of how adverts stress gender difference. The man being muscular showing his masculinity whilst the woman being mannequin-like, showing her feminine perfection. The women in adverts used to be portrayed as working class mothers but with the increase in numbers of successful businesswomen, adverts have been adapted to show this change. Trevor Millum categorises the four most common portrayals of women in British adverts; mannequin, narcissist, hostess and wife/mother. He thought that most women in advertisements where portrayed as the mannequin, devoid of personality whilst men appeared to have more thoughtful expressions. Adverts also focus more on womans hands, suggesting gentleness and femininity. (Courtney 1983:12-13) …show more content…
Indeed in fig.7 we see that the woman has her hands on her neck, a very sensual part of the body. It seems flirtatious but natural. These ideas come through very well in fig.6 and fig.7 where each advert appeals to either the masculine ideal or the feminine ideal. Adverts have moved away from the classic image of the working class housewife but they still use the stereotypical female ideal.
Advertisers prefer to use stereotypes so that there is an immediacy of understanding of what the product is trying to say. It is an effective way of selling a product. Women and men are portrayed in terms of a set of fixed values. “Stereotyping is a form of mediation which translates the complexity of individual character into a set of simple, socially defined distinctions.”(Twhaits, Savis & Mules 2002:153) For example fig.6 suggests that this watch is ideal for men who are strong, active and fit. He is good looking and so comprises of all the ideal qualities that make up a man. The ‘thoughtful’ expression makes you believe that he is also a good guy, the slogan: “The difference is in the detail” now not only applies to his tattoo but also to the fact that he is more than muscle. The mirror appears in both adverts revealing the tattoo on both the man and the woman’s shoulder, which creates the idea of looking again. The reader will see the images and instantly understand what qualities it brings with it. The mirror is on the right and so it is the last thing (before the watches) that the readers see. The advert is selling the fact that this is not a typical watch and that if you look carefully you can see the difference. Research shows that men and women don’t mind seeing these stereotypical ideals, they have become part of social understanding. Advertisers cleverly combine abstract images, symbols and signs that coincide with people’s values, beliefs and attitudes so that assumptions are cleverly constructed and an advert is how they want it to be read. The product itself cannot be distorted, but by creating these ambiguous connections with the ideal of what the product could do for its owner, further desire is created in the mind of the potential purchaser. In fig.6 and fig.7 the watch is in the foreground on the right, it is the signified. The background (the images of the models) acts as a signifier. Thus a sign is created. (Leymore 1975:34-37) People read the advertisement that this watch will help you to get this perfect image. Even though in reality we know that products cannot give us the ideal we want, because it is an image that is so often created it becomes a stereotype that we recognise and desire. Stereotypes are different for men and women, but the techniques of using them are the same, and very effective.
Adverts do not create these values out of nothing but instead they draw on our desires and aspirations, as explained earlier. When we look at adverts like fig.6 and fig.7 we can identify with them. This is because of what Williamson calls the ‘mirror-phase’. When we look in a mirror we are presented with ourselves (this image is the subject), however what we see cannot be our self (we are the object). The reflection is a sign of us the signified. When we see an image which has attributes that we also associate with ourselves, specifically the same gender, then any identification we feel is reinforced. The ‘social-I’ is created, because there is recognition of sexual difference, individual identity is alienated as adverts “show you a symbol of yourself aimed to attract your desire; they suggest you can become yourself.” Desire attempts to unite the gap between the self and the other. (Williamson 1978:60-6) Women especially, recognise themselves in any representation of woman. ‘Woman’ is a strong signifier because it has many powerful connotations that women aspire to be. Fig.7 shows us a beautiful image of a woman; she is confident, sexy and youthful. The focus is on her natural beauty, her flawless skin, large dark eyes, high cheekbones and thick hair whilst for the man in fig.6, the focus is that he has been working out. It is a lot easier for the men to become more like that man as he has worked to gain his muscles, whilst for women to become the woman would be virtually impossible. Women are always trying to improve their appearance and they define their sexuality in male terms (i.e. how they look) whilst men compete for success and women. Men do not identify with images of men as easily as women identify with images of women, because it is not considered to be the norm. This is why men in adverts are shown to be doing the achievable; they often feature in a working environment or at the gym because it is what they can do and achieve.
Another way that people identify with models in adverts depends on where the eyes are focused. Fig.6 has the male model’s gaze averted, this coincides with the ‘thoughtful’ expression idea, and it also prevents any direct relationship with the audience, which could be considered ‘gay’ thus destroying the male ego. Fig.7 uses extra-diegetic address to the viewer, which creates a more personal relationship. However a mutual gaze cannot exist, as the advert is only a photograph. A sense of voyeurism is created which helps to emphasise the idea of desire for that identity. (Chandler 1998)
Adverts for men and women are contrasting in style because men and women have different values and desires. Adverts work by creating a complex relationship linking the reader and the product, the product and the ‘desire’ and the ‘desire’ and the reader. The product becomes an indexical sign as to what the product will give the reader, be that a certain lifestyle, a look or attraction. That this form is effective cannot be in doubt, as similar images are presented again and again in magazines. The male and female models are always a picture of perfection; they have all the qualities for which the reader longs. However there are more models that appear in female adverts than there are in male adverts. Men are often shown just the product. This is because men are less likely to want to identify with images of men. Advertisers are careful that they do not damage the male ego. Women are always trying to improve themselves and so by presenting products next to successful highly attractive models the female consumer will take notice. Especially when the product is a beauty product. It seems then that a woman buys a watch to become cool, calm and attractive and that a man buys a watch to become upwardly mobile and successful in business. One wonders how many less watches would be bought if the motive for their purchase were purely to be able to tell the time.
January 2003
References
Chandler, Daniel (1998): ‘Notes on the “Gaze”’.
[WWW document] URL http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze.html
Cook, Guy (1992): The Discourse of Advertising. London: Routledge
Courtney, Alice E & Thomas W Whipple (1983): Sex Stereotyping in Advertising. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
Dines, G. & J. M. Humez (Eds.) (1995): Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Leymore, Varda Langholz (1975): Hidden Myth: Structure and Symbolism is Advertising. New York: Basic Books
Thwaites, Tony, Llloyd Davis & Warwick Mules (2002): Introducing cultural and media studies: a semiotic approach. Great Britain: Ebb Vale.
Vestergaard, Torben & Kim Schroder (1985): The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell
Williamson, Judith (1978): Decoding Advertisements. London: Marion Boyars
Nicola Batchelor
Allegedly “Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus.”
What the author of this book, John Gray, meant is that in certain key aspects of behaviour, men and women are so different that it could be argued that they are entirely different species. That these behaviour patterns are so different is due to fundamental differences in how members of each gender perceive themselves, what they aspire to, and how they want to be perceived by members of their own and the opposite sex. These particular attitudes and beliefs can give rise to strong motivational impulses, which can also be triggered to influence purchasing behaviour. Tuning in to these attitudes and values therefore lies at the very heart …show more content…
of the way in which advertisers carefully construct their subliminal appeal.
Adverts for the same products, when focused to different genders seem to be similar in appearance on the surface, but in reality have some very fundamental differences, because “adverts present a particular version of reality which is tailored to fit the presumed attitudes and values of the targeted audience.” (Vestergaard & Schroder 1985:72-3) By comparing content and form of adverts for men with adverts for women for the same products, it is obvious that each uses a very different approach to persuade its respective reader.
fig.1 fig.2 fig.3
The most obvious example of how adverts are adjusted to fit the desires of different groups of people is by comparing the Seiko watch adverts above that appear respectively in a mans magazine, a womans magazine and in a magazine for both men and women. Fig.1 uses a different selling technique than fig.2 and fig.3. Fig.1 is selling a watch to men between the ages of 18-23. It uses its own merits to sell the watch. It simply shows the watch as it is and has a detailed description of what it does and why it is unique and worth buying. When I asked a colleague what he thought of this watch, he simply said ‘I want that watch.’ This shows the mentality of a male, he is not concerned with choosing the best watch for him, he will happily be shown what is considered the most technologically advanced watch is and accept it. There is no other watch in the advert, it is presented as the watch to own, it uses modern technology yet is fashionable and stylish. Therefore it is the only watch a man needs to see. Fig.2 and fig.3 are selling the watches by comparing them to a lifestyle. In fig.2 there is an image of a modern woman, who is relaxed on a modern sofa in a modern setting. The blue colours suggest cool calm and sophisticated. Fig.3 shows a businessman who appears confident yet relaxed. He is inside a very modern building and looking up towards the sky. The whole advert suggests success. These two ads are drawing upon the idea of the ideal life. By associating the product with desirable qualities, they suggest that the purchaser will enjoy a specific lifestyle should they buy the product. Adverts today are made to make us believe that we can rise or fall in society by what we buy. (Williamson 1978:14)
Men and women differ in how they shop which is why the product has used the different types of methods to sell its watches. Fig.1 shows just one watch. A man is less picky about what watch he buys, he is more practical than a woman is, after all a watch is a watch. This advert especially appeals to a mans practicality as it doesn’t use a battery. Similarly fig.3 has only one watch and presents more information on the watch than the woman’s advert does. It focuses on the practicality of the watch rather than the choice or appearance. The female advert (fig2) shows two watches giving the reader choices. Women ponder and like to choose carefully which watch will suit them best. Women consider a watch to be a piece of jewellery. The product Seiko has a slogan “forward Thinking”. The added slogan that goes with the man’s watch in fig.1 is “break the time barrier” whilst the women’s is “moments to treasure”. The advert for fig.1 suggests that a man wants to be able to do things quickly and efficiently. This idea is once again emphasised in fig.3 as the watch only needs a battery changed once every ten years suggesting that this watch will save him time to get on with more important things. The use of ‘moments’ in the woman’s ad insinuates that women like to spend their time doing things they enjoy. Thus a watch for a man is an object to make life easier whilst a watch for a woman is something precious. Fig.3 incidentally appeared just before Christmas in the Sunday Telegraph Magazine, a magazine which is aimed for an older audience than fig.1 and that is read by both men and women. Thus encouraging a woman to see this advert and see that this modern watch would make an ideal Christmas gift. Men and women have different wants and needs, women focus on appearance and outward self whilst men concentrate on money, business and their place in society. (Vestergaard & Schroder 1985:74)
fig.4
fig.5
Men and Women differ in how they perceive themselves; this is evident in fig.4 and fig.5. The advert has put together images from a black and white western film with photos taken for the Wrangler advert. As a European reader we instinctively read the image from left to right. Although half the image is in black and white and the other half in colour we assume that these photo’s link. This is because Fig.4 has a table joining with the picnic table and fig. 5 has the bar joining with the horizon of the landscape. The main focus of the adverts, the denim, is on the right page because this is where are eyes will finish. Fig.4 shows the main character to be in control of a gang of cowboys. He has a banana instead of a gun; this shows that the bloke is still up for a laugh. However, because the cowboys on the left are wary, men are allowed to see themselves as dominating and strong. The cowboy Western image provides a familiar icon of masculinity, independence and ruggedness. There are no women featured in this advert and so the image suggests pure masculine potency. The banana is a phallic image, which emphasises man’s masculinity, which is perceived as very important in today’s society; men have to be shown as being ‘men’, they cannot be effeminate. (Vestergaard & Schroder:1985:74)
Fig.5 has stronger colours, the sky is bluer and there is more of it. Whilst the male advert had the city peeping through the trees, the female advert shows an open plain. The woman is feminine and attractive in appearance and the natural surroundings all imply that she has youth and natural beauty. She is ‘falling’ backwards in a response to being shot at, but in a very stylised way, which suggests it is all done in a fun manner. The image of her body bending backwards in such an awkward manner allows women to see themselves as supple. In the Black and White image the cowboy is firing a gun at her however this is not taken seriously by the girl. Thus it is made to appear that in the ‘reality’ of the photograph perhaps someone is stood aiming a banana at her. The cowboy, played by Alan Ladd is a good looking, calm and cool guy which again draws upon the idea of masculine power and seriousness as opposed to the female relaxed carefree attitude. Goffman believes that adverts do not necessarily depict how men and women behave but they are a good “representation on the way we think they behave.” (Courtney 1983:12)
Fig.6 Fig.7
|Adverts often portray the genders as opposites, increasingly with adverts showing male violence.
Kelner believes that this is because modern advertisements have the difficult task of “stressing gender difference in an era characterized by a loosening of rigid gender distinctions.” (Dines & Humez 1995:135) Research by Marsha Smith (Nottingham Trent University) has shown that an increasing number of men wax their legs and pluck their eyebrows; this increase she believes has arrived not only from the gay culture but because men are more worried about hygiene. There has been an increase of men using the gym and sport like bodybuilding, which has persuaded them to ‘clean’ themselves by removing hair. (Daily Mail 14.01.2003:29) Fig.6 and fig.7 are good examples of how adverts stress gender difference. The man being muscular showing his masculinity whilst the woman being mannequin-like, showing her feminine perfection. The women in adverts used to be portrayed as working class mothers but with the increase in numbers of successful businesswomen, adverts have been adapted to show this change. Trevor Millum categorises the four most common portrayals of women in British adverts; mannequin, narcissist, hostess and wife/mother. He thought that most women in advertisements where portrayed as the mannequin, devoid of personality whilst men appeared to have more thoughtful expressions. Adverts also focus more on womans hands, suggesting gentleness and femininity. (Courtney 1983:12-13) …show more content…
Indeed in fig.7 we see that the woman has her hands on her neck, a very sensual part of the body. It seems flirtatious but natural. These ideas come through very well in fig.6 and fig.7 where each advert appeals to either the masculine ideal or the feminine ideal. Adverts have moved away from the classic image of the working class housewife but they still use the stereotypical female ideal.
Advertisers prefer to use stereotypes so that there is an immediacy of understanding of what the product is trying to say. It is an effective way of selling a product. Women and men are portrayed in terms of a set of fixed values. “Stereotyping is a form of mediation which translates the complexity of individual character into a set of simple, socially defined distinctions.”(Twhaits, Savis & Mules 2002:153) For example fig.6 suggests that this watch is ideal for men who are strong, active and fit. He is good looking and so comprises of all the ideal qualities that make up a man. The ‘thoughtful’ expression makes you believe that he is also a good guy, the slogan: “The difference is in the detail” now not only applies to his tattoo but also to the fact that he is more than muscle. The mirror appears in both adverts revealing the tattoo on both the man and the woman’s shoulder, which creates the idea of looking again. The reader will see the images and instantly understand what qualities it brings with it. The mirror is on the right and so it is the last thing (before the watches) that the readers see. The advert is selling the fact that this is not a typical watch and that if you look carefully you can see the difference. Research shows that men and women don’t mind seeing these stereotypical ideals, they have become part of social understanding. Advertisers cleverly combine abstract images, symbols and signs that coincide with people’s values, beliefs and attitudes so that assumptions are cleverly constructed and an advert is how they want it to be read. The product itself cannot be distorted, but by creating these ambiguous connections with the ideal of what the product could do for its owner, further desire is created in the mind of the potential purchaser. In fig.6 and fig.7 the watch is in the foreground on the right, it is the signified. The background (the images of the models) acts as a signifier. Thus a sign is created. (Leymore 1975:34-37) People read the advertisement that this watch will help you to get this perfect image. Even though in reality we know that products cannot give us the ideal we want, because it is an image that is so often created it becomes a stereotype that we recognise and desire. Stereotypes are different for men and women, but the techniques of using them are the same, and very effective.
Adverts do not create these values out of nothing but instead they draw on our desires and aspirations, as explained earlier. When we look at adverts like fig.6 and fig.7 we can identify with them. This is because of what Williamson calls the ‘mirror-phase’. When we look in a mirror we are presented with ourselves (this image is the subject), however what we see cannot be our self (we are the object). The reflection is a sign of us the signified. When we see an image which has attributes that we also associate with ourselves, specifically the same gender, then any identification we feel is reinforced. The ‘social-I’ is created, because there is recognition of sexual difference, individual identity is alienated as adverts “show you a symbol of yourself aimed to attract your desire; they suggest you can become yourself.” Desire attempts to unite the gap between the self and the other. (Williamson 1978:60-6) Women especially, recognise themselves in any representation of woman. ‘Woman’ is a strong signifier because it has many powerful connotations that women aspire to be. Fig.7 shows us a beautiful image of a woman; she is confident, sexy and youthful. The focus is on her natural beauty, her flawless skin, large dark eyes, high cheekbones and thick hair whilst for the man in fig.6, the focus is that he has been working out. It is a lot easier for the men to become more like that man as he has worked to gain his muscles, whilst for women to become the woman would be virtually impossible. Women are always trying to improve their appearance and they define their sexuality in male terms (i.e. how they look) whilst men compete for success and women. Men do not identify with images of men as easily as women identify with images of women, because it is not considered to be the norm. This is why men in adverts are shown to be doing the achievable; they often feature in a working environment or at the gym because it is what they can do and achieve.
Another way that people identify with models in adverts depends on where the eyes are focused. Fig.6 has the male model’s gaze averted, this coincides with the ‘thoughtful’ expression idea, and it also prevents any direct relationship with the audience, which could be considered ‘gay’ thus destroying the male ego. Fig.7 uses extra-diegetic address to the viewer, which creates a more personal relationship. However a mutual gaze cannot exist, as the advert is only a photograph. A sense of voyeurism is created which helps to emphasise the idea of desire for that identity. (Chandler 1998)
Adverts for men and women are contrasting in style because men and women have different values and desires. Adverts work by creating a complex relationship linking the reader and the product, the product and the ‘desire’ and the ‘desire’ and the reader. The product becomes an indexical sign as to what the product will give the reader, be that a certain lifestyle, a look or attraction. That this form is effective cannot be in doubt, as similar images are presented again and again in magazines. The male and female models are always a picture of perfection; they have all the qualities for which the reader longs. However there are more models that appear in female adverts than there are in male adverts. Men are often shown just the product. This is because men are less likely to want to identify with images of men. Advertisers are careful that they do not damage the male ego. Women are always trying to improve themselves and so by presenting products next to successful highly attractive models the female consumer will take notice. Especially when the product is a beauty product. It seems then that a woman buys a watch to become cool, calm and attractive and that a man buys a watch to become upwardly mobile and successful in business. One wonders how many less watches would be bought if the motive for their purchase were purely to be able to tell the time.
January 2003
References
Chandler, Daniel (1998): ‘Notes on the “Gaze”’.
[WWW document] URL http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/gaze/gaze.html
Cook, Guy (1992): The Discourse of Advertising. London: Routledge
Courtney, Alice E & Thomas W Whipple (1983): Sex Stereotyping in Advertising. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books
Dines, G. & J. M. Humez (Eds.) (1995): Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Leymore, Varda Langholz (1975): Hidden Myth: Structure and Symbolism is Advertising. New York: Basic Books
Thwaites, Tony, Llloyd Davis & Warwick Mules (2002): Introducing cultural and media studies: a semiotic approach. Great Britain: Ebb Vale.
Vestergaard, Torben & Kim Schroder (1985): The Language of Advertising. Oxford: Basil
Blackwell
Williamson, Judith (1978): Decoding Advertisements. London: Marion Boyars