Perceptions on Climate Change and its Impacts on Ecosystem Services in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania and Taita, Kenya: Implications for Policy Actions

Perceptions on Climate Change and its Impacts on Ecosystem Services in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania and Taita, Kenya: Implications for Policy Actions

Simeon P.L. Shimbe1, Reuben M.J. Kadigi1, Japhet J. Kashaigili1,
Jumanne M. Abdallah1 and Charles Stephen1
1Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania

Corresponding Author: Simeon P.L. Shimbe, Department of Agricultural economics and Agribusiness, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P.O. BOX 3007 Chuo Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania, E-mail: [e-mail], Mobile phone: [phone].

Abstract
In recent years, communities, especially farmers, have started to experience the multifaceted challenges of providing food security for a growing population while ensuring the integrity of ecosystems. Changing temperatures and precipitation patterns are affecting crop production, livestock performance, water availability and ecosystem services provision. It is important to acknowledge that communities have their own ways of perceiving and understanding these dynamics. In this regard, communities’ perceptions on climate change and its impacts on ecosystem services are of research importance to inform climate change future policy actions. This study was conducted along the altitudinal gradients of Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania and Taita Hills in Kenya. Its objectives were to assess communities’ perceptions on climate change and its impacts on ecosystem services; to explore the adaptation strategies already adopted and to identify the perceived challenges to adaptation strategies. This information will have a bearing on future climate change policy actions in Tanzania and Kenya. Data were collected through focus group discussions and transect walks. Results show that all the respondents were aware of the climate change and they were able to give the indicators and impacts of climate change. The survey also identified a number of ecosystem services available in the study areas. To cope with climate change, communities’ are implementing adaptation measures such as crop diversification, extensive farming, cultivation of drought and temperature resistant crop varieties, changing planting and harvesting timings, irrigation, water and soil conservation techniques and livelihood diversification. However, they are faced with challenges in implementing the adaptation measures. The study recommends some policy actions including consideration of communities’ perceptions in climate change mitigation and adaptation options, support for livelihood diversification, mass education on climate change and mainstreaming climate change into development policies at local, national and international levels.

Key words: Temperature, Precipitation, Livelihood diversification, Mitigation, Adaptation
1.0 Introduction and Objectives
1.1 Introduction
In recent years, communities, especially farmers, have started to experience the multifaceted challenges of providing food security for a growing population by supplying its demands for food while ensuring the integrity of ecosystems. Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns are affecting crop growth, livestock performance, water availability and the provision of ecosystem services (Hahn, 1995; Hatfield and Prueger, 2004; Lobell and Field, 2007).
Communities’ perceptions and understanding on climate change and its impacts on ecosystem services are of paramount importance in informing future adaptation, mitigation and motivations for various stakeholders to support future policy actions. The design and implementation of any effective climate change policy requires, among other things, adequate knowledge about the perceptions the stakeholders have about the risks they are exposed to, the adaptation options adopted, the existing capacity to adapt and the perceived challenges to adaptation (Juana, et al., 2013). To address these issues, there is a need for an assessment of stakeholders’ perceptions, impacts and adaptations to climate change.

1.2 Climate change and ecosystem services in Eastern Africa
Eastern Africa is home to two of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots, that is, the coastal forests of Eastern Africa and the Eastern Afromontane Biodiversity Hotspot (EABH). Kilimanjaro Mountain and Taita Hills, where this study was conducted, are located within the EABH, which has important ecosystem functions and service values arising from water towers providing water resources for the low lying areas and supporting food production from major crops like maize, banana, cabbages and plantation crops like coffee and avocado. The EABH also supports forests which are important habitats for many endemic flora and fauna species and places for recreation and eco-tourism (Balmford et al., 2001; Burgess et al., 2007). Due to climate change and anthropogenic land use changes, exacerbated through high population increase, EABH is at risk of extreme climatic changes, while the goods and services its ecosystems provide are under significant threat (IPPC, 2007). Climate change can have significant negative impacts on the natural environment including the loss of biodiversity and changes in ecosystem services and functions (Mwingira et al., 2011). Any increase in global average temperature above the range of 1.5- 2.5°C is likely to cause significant changes in the structure, function and geographical ranges of ecosystems, which has negative effects on species distribution and survival (IPCC, 2007). In developing countries, like Tanzania and Kenya, where the majority of the population largely rely on natural-resource-based livelihoods, this can have impacts on the socio-economic status of communities, hinder progress towards development goals and threaten sustainable development (IPCC, 2007). Together, climatic and non-climatic stressors may have considerable impacts on the ecosystems functions and on ecosystem services (Lovejoy, 2005).
1.3 Objectives of the study
The objectives of the survey were to assess communities’ perceptions and knowledge on climate change and its impacts on ecosystem services; to explore the adaptation strategies already adopted by communities to cope with the consequences of climate change; and to identify the perceived challenges to climate change adaptation strategies. This information will have a bearing on future adaptation, mitigation and motivations for various stakeholders to support future climate change policy actions.

2.0 Methodology
2.1 Description of the Study Area
This study was conducted along the altitudinal gradients of Mt. Kilimanjaro and Taita Hills which are in Northern Tanzania and South Eastern Kenya respectively. The Taita Hills have an elevation ranging from 600m to 2220m with rich biodiversity. The study area in Kilimanjaro has a high elevation ranging from 713m to 1693m and rich vegetation. The study areas are characterized by steep altitudinal gradients and associated climate and ecosystems from lowland forest to montane forests at higher altitudes. Thus, these areas offer a unique area for analyzing climate driven changes on ecosystem goods and services.
2.2 Data collection
In this study, data were collected through focus group discussions (FGDs) and transect walks. The FGDs were used to gather information from stakeholders regarding their perceptions on climate change and its impacts on ecosystem goods and services; adaptation strategies adopted and perceived challenges to climate change adaptation strategies. Because of different administrative structure in the two countries, FGDs in Kilimanjaro, Tanzania were conducted at village level while in Taita Hills which is in Kenya, were conducted at sub-location level which is equivalent to a village in Tanzania. The FGDs composed of at least seven people comprising of village or sub-location leaders, representatives from village/sub-location environmental committees, opinion leaders, women and people involved in various activities related to exploitation and utilization of ecosystem goods and services. For sampling purposes, each of the two study areas was divided into three altitudinal zones, namely the lower, middle and higher altitudes. Two (2) villages/ sub-locations were picked from each of the altitudinal zones from each study area. A total of 12 villages/sub-locations were selected, six (6) from each study transect. One FGD was conducted in each sampled village/sub-location. Content analysis was used to analyze the data from FGDs.

3.0 Discussions
3.1 State of Ecosystems
The main ecosystems which provide ecosystem functions and services to the communities in the study areas were identified as agricultural, forest and aquatic ecosystems.

3.1.1 Agro–ecosystem
The agro-ecosystem was identified as the dominant ecosystem in the study areas as agriculture is the main livelihood activity for most of the people. Most parts of the study areas are dominated by agricultural fields and areas under cultivation expand as the population grows. In the two transects, livestock keeping is carried out though at a small scale. In Kilimanjaro, almost every household keeps livestock especially cattle kept under intensive system. In Taita Hills, fewer households keep livestock than in Kilimanjaro. In addition to cattle, other livestock kept in the study areas include goats, pigs, sheep and poultry. The major concern regarding the agro-ecosystem was the decreasing agricultural productivity. One of the major causes for the decline is climate change, soil erosion and declining soil fertility associated with continuous cultivation, increased incidences of crop pests and diseases and marketing problems.

3.1.2 Forest ecosystems
Both the Kilimanjaro Mountain and Taita Hills are endowed with forest ecosystem in which some patches fall under protection. The forest ecosystems are rich in various flora and fauna species. However, forests were reported to have declined in terms of size and biodiversity because there has been considerable forest clearance to open up new farms and settlements and tree felling for fuel-wood and timber. One of the locally perceived effects of declined forests is increased soil erosion especially where there are inadequate soil and water conservation measures.

3.1.3 Aquatic ecosystems
The aquatic ecosystems in the study areas form the smallest part of the ecosystem. They are characterized by streams, rivers, valleys and artificial ponds and are supported by numerous natural springs which are scattered on the slopes of the mountains and hills. However, due to climate change, some of these natural springs have dried up while others are drying up. The remaining water bodies form a habitat for fish and other aquatic life. Aquatic ecosystems were perceived to be deteriorating in terms of decreasing water flows in rivers and streams, fish catch in the rivers as well as drying up of some wetlands largely attributed to changing climate and increased destruction of water catchments. Siltation was mentioned to be a problem in some places and a serious case reported is that of Mwatate dam in Taita which has completely disappeared because of siltation. In the river systems, the major concerns were the increasing seasonality associated with rivers drying up much earlier in the dry season as compared to the past. Natural springs were reported to have decreased in water discharge.

3.2 Ecosystem services available
A number of ecosystem goods and services were mentioned during FGDs and then witnessed by the team of researchers during transect walks. These ecosystem goods and services include timber, water, food and cash crops, fire wood,charcoal, building materials (such as grass, withies, poles) pasture, medicinal services, honey, tourist attractions and micro climate moderation.

3.3 Climate change Perceptions
Throughout the study areas, all the participants in the FGDs were aware of the climate change. They mentioned some indicators of climate change to include changes in rainfall and temperature patterns. Examples of rainfall patterns mentioned are delay in onset of rain season and high variability in the amount of rainfall received (either inadequate causing drought or above normal causing floods). In Kilimanjaro, for example, it was mentioned that long rains used to start in February and end in June but now the long-rain season is between March and May. On temperature patterns, they cited temperature increase as an indicator of climate change. In Kilimanjaro especially in the high altitude, for example, it was very common to see ice on the roofs of houses in the nights and mornings in the past but now this has become a history. Also, the ice cap on the Kilimanjaro Mountain was reported to be in a general state of retreat.

3.2 The impacts of climate change on the Ecosystems and livelihood
Climate change in the two study areas was perceived to have both positive and negative impacts. Some of the perceived positive impacts are as follows:-
i. Some crops which were not grown in some places are now grown. For example, in middle and high altitudes, crops like mangos, papaws, cabbages and tomatoes were not common in the past but are now common because the current climate is favourable to them. This has widened the types of crops available for farmers from which they can choose the ones to grow. ii. Falling of plant leaves as a result of prolonged droughts increase the organic matter content of the soil and hence soil fertility especially in areas where agro- forestry is practised. iii. Climate change has helped people to be aggressive with life by looking for other sources of livelihood instead of depending entirely on farming because farming has been negatively affected by climate change. People who were solely farmers have now diversified their sources of livelihood by engaging in off-farm income generating activities. In other words, climate change has ignited enterprising tendencies among farmers in the study areas.
Climate change impacts perceived as negative are as follows:-
i. Emergence of new diseases such as malaria in high altitude areas due to temperature increase. ii. Poor crop yields leading to famine and high levels of poverty. iii. Disappearance of some useful flora and fauna species. iv. Occurrence of destructive winds because vegetation which was acting as wind barrier has decreased.
v. Extensive farming, which is one of a coping strategy to climate change, has caused clearing of vegetation and hence environmental destruction. vi. Some rivers and water springs and other water bodies have dried up because of prolonged droughts. vii. Some crops which were commonly grown in the past are no longer grown because the current climate is not favourable to them. For example, cotton, coffee, and banana are no longer grown in low altitude areas in Kilimanjaro and Taita. The production of coffee and banana in the middle and high altitudes has significantly decreased. In Taita Hills, coffee which was the main cash crop has been abandoned completely in all the three altitudinal zones. viii. Fishing is no longer practiced in both Kilimanjaro and Taita hills except in a few rivers and artificial ponds. ix. Climate change has increased crop and livestock production costs as farmers have to use pesticides to control new pests and diseases.
x. Decline in crop yields and hence food insecurity and poverty has caused environmental destruction as people try to find alternative sources of livelihood through, for example, illegal logging and charcoal making leading to unsustainable utilization of natural resources such as forests.

3.3 Adaptations options adopted and challenges to adaptation
To cope with climate change, communities in the study areas have adopted some adaptation actions. They include crop diversification, extensive farming, growing of crop varieties which are resistant to drought and high temperatures, changing planting and harvesting timings to correspond to the changing pattern of precipitation. Other actions are irrigation, water and soil conservation techniques and livelihood diversification to include off-farm income generating activities. However, there are some challenges to these adaptation efforts. The challenges given include limited access to information about climate change and adaptation technologies and lack of financial resources as some adaptation options are too costly for most of the people to afford.

4.0 Conclusions, Recommendations and Policy Implications
It is clear from this study that all the stakeholders in the study areas are aware of the climate change and its impacts. The impacts of climate change in the study areas are perceived as both positive and negative. To cope with climate change, communities’ have started implementing some adaptation measures. However, they are faced with some challenges in implementing the adaptation measures. The following policy actions are recommended as possible responses to the current state of climate change and ecosystem services in the two countries:
Efforts to develop measures to mitigate and adapt to the effects of climate change should acknowledge the fact that local communities are rational actors and have their own ways of perceiving and understanding the causes and impacts of climate change. They should, therefore, be seen as key partners in the design and implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies;
The role of research is increasingly becoming more challenging now than ever because effective adaptation and mitigation requires to be backed by precise research findings. It is, therefore, imperative for the policy makers to take into consideration the perceptions and understanding of stakeholders, as revealed by research, before developing policy actions to address climate change.
Livelihood diversification from farm to off-farm income generating activities should be promoted and supported to vulnerable communities to enable them cope with the impact of climate change. But it needs not to be overemphasized here that livelihood diversification is one but not the only adaptation strategy. It should be complemented with other measures such as tree planting and ecosystem restoration campaigns; dissemination and promotion of cheap and readily available alternative energy technologies like solar, wind and gas; establishment of irrigation schemes to minimize dependence on rain-fed agriculture and introduction of crop varieties which are resistant to environmental stress like droughts, pests and diseases. All these demand adequate support from the government;
Mass education on environmental conservation and climate change should be given by the government and non-governmental organizations through different media and communication pathways. Clear and tailor-made messages about the climate change and its impacts on ecosystems and livelihoods should be communicated to all stakeholders.
There is a need of mainstreaming climate change into all development plans and policies at local, national and international levels.

Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland, through the Climate Change Impacts on Ecosystem Services and Food Security in Eastern Africa (CHIESA) project, for financial support which enabled us to carry out this research.

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