Political Changes In The United States Chapter 1 Summary
Chapter 1: Forces of Political Change in Today’s World
I. World events and domestic crises create political changes that affect the way all of us live. II. Change versus Stability a. People and governments need stability as well as change. Agreement on the rules of the road, on the structure of government, and especially on the processes by which change is made gives people the confidence they need to plan for their own futures. If governments change capriciously or suddenly, no individual or family can be sure that their plans are safe. b. Due to our electoral system, Americans have the opportunity to maintain or to change the balance of power in their national government every two years or so c. The …show more content…
willingness of Americans to respond to new challenges and, when necessary, to demand changes in the way the government works is at the core of our democratic nation. Change- even revolutionary change- is a tribute to the success of a political system. d. Institution- a long-standing, identifiable structure or association that performs certain functions for society. III. What is Politics? a. Why do nations and people struggle so hard to establish a form of government and continue to expend so much effort in politics to keep that government functioning? Politics and forms of government are probably as old as human society. There are many definitions of politics, but all try to explain how human beings regulate conflict within their society. As soon as humans began to live in groups, particularly groups that were larger than their immediate families, they found that they needed to establish about behavior, property, the privileges of individuals and groups, and how people would survive together. b. Politics can best be understood as the process of resolving conflicts and deciding, as Harold Laswell put it, “who gets what, when, and how,” in society. c. The Evolution of Politics 1. In the early versions of human society, the tribe or village, politics was relatively informal. Tribal elders of hereditary chiefs were probably vested with the power to decide who married whom, who was able to build a hut on the best piece of land, and which young people succeeded them into the positions of leadership. 2. Other societies were very “democratic” from the very beginning, giving their members some role in the choice of leadership and rules. Early human societies rarely had the concept of property, so few rules were needed to decide who owned which piece of property or who inherited that piece. The concepts of property and inheritance are much more modern. As society became more complex and humans became settled farmers rather than hunters and gatherers, resolving problems associated with property, inheritance, sales and exchanges, kinship, and rules of behavior became more important. Politics developed into the process by which some of these questions were answered. d. Resolution of Conflicts 1. Inevitably, conflicts arise in society, because members of a group are distinct individuals with unique needs, values, and perspectives. Political processes may be required to help resolve at least three kinds of conflict that may arise in a society: a. People may differ over their beliefs, either religious or personal, or over basic issues of right and wrong. This kind of debate has arisen in recent years over the desirability and validity of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages. The issue of whether individuals should have the right to commit physician-assisted suicide has also aroused this type of debate. b. People within a society may differ greatly in their perception of what the society’s goals should be. For example, Americans disagree about whether the national government has the right to prohibit the medical use of marijuana over a state’s citizens have voted on its legality. The debate over this issue is similar to the one over assisted suicide. c. People also may differ over how the government spends its resources. At any given time, the resources of the government (obtained from society) are limited. Therefore, Americans may disagree over which groups will receive more and which will receive less. IV. The Need for Government and Power a. If politics refers to conflict and conflict resolution, government refers to the institutions, or permanent structures, that have the power to enforce rules that impose order and stability on society. In early human societies, such as families and small tribes, there was no need for formal structure of government. Decisions were made by acknowledged leaders in those societies. In families, all members may meet together to decide values and priorities. When a community makes decisions through informal rules, politics exist- but not government. In most contemporary societies, these activities continue in many forms. Politics can be found in schools, social groups, and any other organized group. When a society reaches a certain level of complexity, however, it becomes necessary to establish a permanent or semi-permanent group of individuals to act for the whole, to become the government. b. Authority and Legitimacy 1. In addition to instituting and carrying out laws regulating individual behavior, most modern governments also attempt to carry out public policies that are intended to fulfill specific national or state goals. 2. Why do citizens obey these laws and subject themselves to these regulations? One reason citizens obey government is that it has the authority to make such laws. By authority, we mean the ultimate right to enforce compliance with decisions. Americans also believe the laws should be obeyed because they possess legitimacy- that is, they are appropriate and rightful. The laws have been made according to the correct and accepted political process by representatives of the people. Therefore, the people accept the laws as legitimate and having political authority. 3. Authority- the features of a leader or an institution that compel obedience, usually because of ascribed legitimacy; for most societies, government is the ultimate authority. 4. Legitimacy- a status conferred by the people on the government’s officials, acts, and institutions through their belief that the government’s actions are an appropriate use of power by a legally constituted governmental authority following correct decision-making policies. These actions are regarded as rightful and entitled to compliance and obedience on the part of citizens. c. The Question of Power 1. Another and perhaps more basic answer as to why we comply with the laws and rules of the government is that we understand that government has the power to enforce the law. We obey environmental laws and pay taxes in part because we acknowledge the legitimacy of the law. We also know that the government has the power to coerce our compliance with the law. Governments differ in the degree to which they must rely on coercion to gain compliance from their citizens. In authoritarian nations, the use of force is far more common than in democratic nations, where most citizens comply with the law because they accept the authority of the government and its officials. In authoritarian or totalitarian regimes, the will of the government is imposed frequently and is upheld by the use of force. 2. The concept of power also involves the ability of one individual or a group of individuals to influence the actions of another individual or group. These uses of power are informal and involve using rewards, rather than the threat of coercion, to ensure compliance. More often than not, political power in the government is a matter of influence and persuasion rather than coercion. V. Who Governs? a. One of the most fundamental questions of politics has to do with which person or groups of people control society through the government. Who possesses the power to make decisions about who gets what and how the benefits of the society are distributed among the people? b.
Sources of Political Power 1. At one extreme is a society governed by a totalitarian regime. In such a political system, a small group of leaders or a single individual- a dictator- makes all political decisions for the society. Every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government. The power of the ruler is total (thus, the term totalitarian). 2. Many of our terms for describing the distribution of political power are derived from the ancient Greeks, who were the first Western people to study politics systematically. A society in which political decisions were controlled by a small group was called an oligarchy, meaning rule by a few members of the elite, who generally benefited themselves. Another form of rule by the few was known as aristocracy, meaning rule by the most virtuous, the most talented, or the best suited to the position. Later in European history, aristocracy meant rule by the titled or the upper classes. In contrast to such a top-down form of control was the form known as anarchy, or the condition of no government. Anarchy exists when each individual makes his or her own rules for behavior, and there are no laws and no
government. 3. The Greek term for rule by the people was democracy. Although most Greek philosophers were not convinced that democracy was the best form of government, they understood and debated the possibility of such a political system. Within the limits of their culture, some of the Greek city-states operated as democracies. c. Direct Democracy as a Model 1. From the ancient Greek city-states comes a model for governance that has framed the modern debate over whether the people can make decisions about their own government and laws. The Athenian system of government is usually considered the model for direct democracy because the citizens of that community debated and voted directly on all laws, even those put forward by the ruling council of the city. The most important feature of Athenian democracy was that the legislature was composed of all the citizens. Women, foreigners, and slaves, however, were excluded because they were not citizens. The outstanding feature of this early form of government was that it required a high level of participation from every citizen; that participation was seen as benefiting the individual and the city-state. The Athenians recognized that although a high level of participation might lead to instability in government, citizens, if informed about the issues, could be trusted to make decisions about the laws governing their community. 2. Direct Democracy Today a. Direct democracy has also been practiced in some Swiss cantons and, in the United States, in New England town meetings and in some Midwestern township meetings. b. Some states provide a modern adaptation of direct democracy for their citizens; in most states, representative democracy is supplemented by the initiative or the referendum- a process by which people may vote directly on laws or constitutional amendments. The recall process, which is available in over one-third of the states, allows the people to vote to remove an official from state office. 3. Teledemocracy a. Because of the Internet, Americans have more access to political information than ever before. b. Therefore, to some extent, we are gradually progressing toward a type of teledemocracy in which citizens and their political representatives communicate with each other easily and frequently online. Is it proper to take a further step and create a direct democracy in which citizens cast online votes on important policy issues as they arise? This would be the extreme version of teledemocracy and much more akin to the Athenian direct democracy model. d. The Dangers of Direct Democracy 1. Although they were aware of the Athenian model, the framers of the United States Constitution- for the most part- were opposed to such a system. For many centuries preceding to the country’s establishment, any form of democracy was considered to be dangerous and lead to instability. But in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the idea of government based on the consent of the people gained increasing popularity. Such a government was the main aspiration of the American Revolution, the French Revolution in 1789, and many subsequent ones. The masses, however, were considered to be uneducated to govern themselves, too prone to the influence of demagogues (political leaders who manipulate popular prejudices), and too likely to abrogate minority rights. 2. James Madison defended the new scheme of government set forth in the United States Constitution, while warning of the problems inherent in a “pure democracy”; like many other politicians of his time, Madison feared that pure, or direct, democracy would deteriorate into mob rule. What would keep the majority of the people, if given direct decision-making power, from abusing the rights of minority groups e. Representative Democracy 1. The framers of the United States Constitution chose to craft a republic, meaning a government in which the power rests with the people, who elect representatives to govern them and to make the laws and policies. To eighteenth-century Americans, the idea of a republic also meant a government based on common beliefs and virtues that would be fostered within small communities. The rulers were to be amateurs- good citizens- who would take turns representing their fellow citizens, in a way similar to the Greek model. 2. To allow for change while ensuring a measure of stability, the U.S. Constitution created a form of republican government known as a representative democracy. The people hold the ultimate power over the government through the election process, but policy decisions are all made by policy officials. This modified form of democratic government came to be widely accepted throughout the Western world as a compromise between the desire for democratic control and the needs of the modern state. 1. Principles of Democratic Government 1. All representative democracies rest on the rule of the people as expressed through the election of government officials. 2. Universal suffrage- The right of all adults to vote for their representatives 3. Granting every person the right to participate in the election of officials recognizes the equal voting power of each citizen. This emphasis on the equality of every individual before the law is central to the American system. Because everyone’s vote counts equally, the only way to make fair decisions is by some form of majority will. But to ensure that majority rule does not become oppressive, modern democracies also provides guarantees of minority rights. If certain democratic principles did not protect minorities, the majority might violate the fundamental rights of members of certain groups, especially groups that are unpopular or dissimilar to the majority population. 4. One way to guarantee the continued existence of a representative democracy is to hold free, competitive elections. Thus, the minority always has the opportunity to win elective office. For such elections to be totally open, freedom of the press and speech must be preserved so that opposition candidates may present their criticisms of the government. 2. Constitutional Democracy a. Another key feature of Western representative democracy is that is based on the principle of limited government. The powers of the government are clearly limited, either through a written document or through widely shared beliefs. The U.S. Constitution sets down the fundamental structure of the government and the limits to its activities. Such limits are intended to prevent political decisions based on the whims of ambitions of individuals in government rather than on constitutional principles. VI. Do We Have A Democracy? a. The sheer size and complexity of American society seem to make it unsuitable for direct democracy on a national scale. Some scholars suggest than even representative democracy is difficult to achieve in any modern state. Polling data have shown that many shown that many Americans are neither particular interested in politics. For the average citizen, the national government is too remote, too powerful, and too bureaucratic to be influenced by one vote. b. Democracy for the Few 1. Elite theory- A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in self-interest 2. Elite theory describes an American mass population that in uninterested in politics and that is willing to let leaders make the decisions. Some versions of elite theory posit a small, cohesive, elite class that makes almost all the important decisions regarding the nation, whereas others suggest that votes choose among competing elites. New members of the elite are recruited through the educational system so that the brightest children of the masses allegedly have the opportunity to join the elite stratum. 3. In such a political system, the primary goal of the government is stability, because elites do not want any change in their status. Major social and economic changes takes place only if elites see their resources threatened. However, whereas some policies may be perceived as elitist in nature, other policies many benefit of the public. American elites are more devoted to democratic principles and rights than are most members of the mass public. 4. Elites may have far more power and influence on the political system than do voters from the lower and middle classes. Because they share an educational background from selective schools, a higher income level, and common lifestyles with government policymakers, they are more likely to see government policymakers on a social basis and to form friendships with elective officials. 5. Many observers contend that economic and social developments in the last several years have strengthened the perception that America is governed by an elite, privileged group. Wealthy citizens have educational opportunities that poorer individuals cannot afford. c. Democracy for Groups 1. A different school or thought looks at the characteristics of the American electorate finds that our form of democracy is based on group interests. Even if the average citizen cannot keep up with political issues or cast a deciding vote in any election, the individual’s interests will be protected by groups that represent her or him. 2. Pluralism a. Theorists who subscribe to pluralism as a way of understanding. American politics believe that people are naturally social and inclined to form associations. In the pluralists’ view, politics is the struggle among groups to gain benefits for their members for their members. Given the structure of the American political system, group conflicts tend to be settled by compromise and accommodation so that each interest is satisfied to some extent. b. Pluralists see public theory as resulting from group interactions carried out within Congress and the executive branch. Because they are a multitude of interests, no one group can dominate the political process. Furthermore, because most individuals have more than one interest, conflict among groups does not divide the nation into hostile camps. c. These are a number of flaws in some of the basic assumptions of this theory. Among these are the relatively low number of people who formally join interest groups, the real disadvantages of pluralism for poor citizens, and the belief that group decision making always reflects the best interests of the nation. 3. Hyperpluralism a. With these flaws in mind, critics see a danger that groups may become so powerful that all policies become compromises crafted to satisfy the interests of the largest groups. The interests of the public as a whole, then, cannot be considered. Critics of pluralism have suggested that a democratic system can be virtually paralyzed by the struggle between interest groups. This struggle results in a condition sometimes called hyperpluralism, meaning that groups and their needs control the government and decision-making rather than the government’s acting for the good of the nation. b. Hyperpluralism- A situation that arises when interest groups become so powerful that they dominate the political decision-making structures, rendering any consideration of the greater public interest possible. c. Both pluralism and elite theory attempt to explain the real workings of American democracy. Neither approach is complete, nor can either be proved. Viewing the United States as run by elites reminds us that the founders themselves were not great defenders of the mass public. In contrast, the pluralist view underscores both the advantages and disadvantages of Americans’ inclination to join, to organize, and to pursue benefits for themselves. It points out all of the places within the American political system in which interest groups find it comfortable to work. With this knowledge, the system can be adjusted to keep interest groups within the limits of the public good. VII. Ideas and Politics: Political Culture a. The writers of the American constitution believed that the structures they had created would provide for both democracy and a stable political system. They also believed that the nation would be sustained by its political culture- a concept defined as a patterned set of ideas, values, and ways of thinking about government and politics. b. Political culture- The collection of beliefs and attitudes toward government and the political process held by a community or nation c. Political Socialization and the Dominant Culture 1. There is considerable consensus among American citizens about certain concepts basic to the U.S. political system. Given that the vast majority of Americans are descendants of immigrants having diverse cultural and political backgrounds, how is it possible to account for this consensus? Primarily, it is the result of political socialization- the process by which such beliefs and values are transmitted to new immigrants and to our children. The nation depends on several different agents to transmit the precepts of our national culture to children and newcomers to our nation. 2. Political socialization- the process through which individuals learn a set of political attitudes and form opinions about social issues. The family and the educational system are two of the most important forces in the political socialization process. 3. The most obvious source of political socialization is the family. Parents teach their children about the value of participating in the political system through their example and through our approval. 4. Dominant culture- the values, customs, language, and ideals established by the group or groups in a society that traditionally have controlled politics and government institutions in that society. 5. Before it is possible to discuss some of the most fundamental concepts of the American political culture, it is important to note that these values can be considered those of the dominant culture. The dominant culture in the United States has its roots in Western European civilization. From that civilization, American politics has inherited a bias toward individualism, private property, Judeo-Christian ethics, and, to some extent, the male domination of societal decisions. As the descendants of more recent immigrant groups, especially those from Asian and Islamic nations, become part of the American mainstream, there will be more challenges to the dominant culture. Other cultural heritages honor community or family over individualism and sometimes place far less emphasis on materialism. Additionally, changes in our society have brought about the breakdown of some values, such as the sanctity of the family structure, and the acceptance of others, such as women pursuing careers in the workplace. 6. Certain groups within the United States insist on maintaining their own cultural beliefs and practices. The Amish, for example, are descended from German religious sects and live in close communities in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, as well as in other states. The more conservative Amish groups do not use modern conveniences, such as automobiles or electricity, and have resisted immunizations and mandatory schooling for their children. d. The Fundamental Values 1. Some nations are very homogeneous, with most of their citizens have the same ethnic and religious background and sharing a common history. Achieving consensus on the basic values of the political culture is fairly easy in these nations. Because the United States is a nation of immigrants, socializing people into the political culture is an important function of the society. Over the two hundred years of its history, however, the people of the United States have formed a deep commitment to certain values and ideas. Among these are liberty, equality, and property. 2. Liberty a. The term liberty can be defined as the greatest freedom of individuals that is consistent with the freedom of other individuals in the society. In the United States, our civil liberties include religious freedom- both the right to practice whatever religion one chooses and freedom from any state-imposed religion. Our civil liberties include freedom of speech- the right to express our opinions freely on matters including government actions. Freedom of speech is perhaps one of our most prized liberties, because a democracy could not endure without it. These and other guarantees of liberty are found in the Bill of Rights. b. The process of ensuring liberty for all Americans did not end with the adoption of the Bill of Rights but has continued throughout our history. Political issues often turn on how a particular liberty should be interpreted or the extent to which it should be limited in the interests of society as a whole 3. Equality a. The Declaration of Independence states, “All men are created equal.” Today, that statement has been amended by the political culture to include groups other than white males- women, African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and others. The definition of equality, however, has been disputed by Americans since the Revolution. Does equality mean simply political equality- the right to register to vote, cast a ballot, and to run for political office? Does equality mean equal opportunity for individuals to develop their talents and skills? Although most Americans believe strongly that all persons should have the opportunity to fulfill their potential, many disagree about whether it is the government’s responsibility to eliminate social and economic differences.
4. Property a. Many Americans probably remember that the “unalienable rights” asserted in the Declaration of Independence are the rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The inspiration for that phrase, however, came from the writings of an English philosopher, John Locke (1632-1704), who stated that people’s rights were to life, liberty, and property. In American political culture, the pursuit of happiness and property are considered to be closely related. A capitalist economy is based on private property rights. Indeed, Americans place great value on owning and acquiring material possessions, and seeking profits through new business ventures. b. Property can be seen as giving its owner political power and he liberty to do whatever he or she wants. Simultaneously, the ownership of property immediately creates inequality in society. The desire to own property, however, is so widespread among classes of Americans that socialist movements, which advocate the redistribution of wealth and property, have had a difficult time securing a wide following here. c. Democracy, liberty, equality, and property- these concepts lie at the core of the American political culture. These fundamental principles are so deeply ingrained in U.S. culture that Americans rarely question them. e. The Stability of the Culture 1. Political culture plays an important role in holding society together because the ideas at the core of that culture must persuade people to support and participate in the existing political process. If people begin to doubt the ideas underlying the culture, they will not transmit those beliefs to their children or supporting existing institutions. 2. Stability and Ethnic Subgroups a. Consider that some subgroups, such as Native Americans and the Amish, have made concerted efforts to preserve their language and cultural practices. The question then arises whether these subgroups also subscribe to the values of the American political culture. b. Studies of immigrant groups and ethnic subgroups generally have shown that they are as supportive of the concepts of the American political culture as other Americans are. Some surveys have shown that immigrants are even more enthusiastic about American values than are native-born respondents. 3. Stability in the Face of Contested Elections a. Americans are so strongly wedded to the existing political culture that they do not worry much even during period of great uncertainty. VIII. The Changing Face of America a. The face of America is changing as its citizens age, become more diverse, and generate new needs for laws and policies. Long a nation of growth, the United States has become a middle-aged nation with a low birthrate and an increasing number of older citizens who want services from the government. Both the aging of the population and its changing ethnic composition will have significant political consequences. b. The Aging of America 1. The population is aging quickly; the median age was thirty-five in the year 2000. Even more startling is the fact that almost 13 percent of the population is now sixty-five years old or older. By the year 2050, more than one-fourth of the population will be retired or approaching retirement. 2. The shrinking of the younger population, not only in the United States but in all developed countries of the world, is a phenomenon not seen since the dying days of the Roman Empire. The implications for society are significant. For one thing, if the current retirement and pension systems, including Social Security, remain in place, a very large proportion of each worker’s wages will go to taxes to support benefits for the retired population. For another, it means that to increase the younger population, we will need to open the doors to more immigrants- a politically divisive issue. All developed nations will be facing similar challenges and issues as their populations continue to age. c. Ethnic Change 1. The ethnic character of the United States is also changing. Whites have a very low birthrate, whereas African Americans and Hispanics have more children per family. 2. In some areas today, such as Los Angeles and other cities and countries across the Southwest, Mexican Americans now constitute a majority of the population. Significantly, in 2001, the Census Bureau announced that in California, the nation’s most populous state, whites had become a minority. As a result of this shift in minority-majority status, it is often unclear what diversity means and what integration politics should aim to accomplish. Somewhat, ironically, many policies that were originally designed to integrate members of minority groups into the mainstream are now being used to achieve the opposite; to ensure that whites can participate in non-white programs. d. Other Trends 1. Other changes in the face of America have more to do with our changing society. More Americans are filling the urban places of the nation in comparison with rural areas. Women continue to increase their participation in the educational system. By the beginning of the new century, as many women as men had completed their high school educations, and the percentage of women who have completed college continues to grow. 2. Change also continues in the structure of American families, although the traditional two-parent family is still very strong. About one-fourth of the children of one-parent families live in poverty. 3. Other changes also have consequences for social policies. Although the national government has been committed to ending poverty since the mid-1960s, over one-tenth of all Americans still live in households that have incomes below the poverty line. The number of Americans who lack basic skills is also disturbing; recent national surveys have found that about one-fifth of all Americans are barely literate and have difficulty dealing with simple documents. 4. Each of these trends raises political questions for the society as a whole. These facts challenge voters and their representatives to change policies in order to address these issues- if society can agree on how to do so. IX. Ideas and Politics: Ideology a. An ideology is a closely linked set of beliefs about the goal of politics and the most desirable political order. True ideologies are well-organized theories that can guide virtually every decision that an individual or society can make. The major ideologies of our time are usually represented as a continuum from the far left to the far right, according to their views of the role government should play in a society. On the extreme left of the spectrum are those, such as Communists, who believe that the government should exercise central control over the economy and the political system in the interests of promoting total equality and security. Those on the extreme right of the spectrum, such as Libertarians, believe that the government should play a minimal role in society and that individuals should have the greatest political and economic freedom possible. b. Most Americans, though, do not derive their views on politics from the more extreme ideologies. In fact, the U.S. political spectrum has been dominated for decades by two relatively moderate ideological positions: liberalism and conservatism. c. What Liberals Believe 1. Liberalism- A set of beliefs that includes the advocacy of positive government action to improve the welfare of individuals, support for civil rights, and tolerance for political and social change 2. American liberals believe that the government should take strong positive action to solve the nation’s economic and social problems. They believe that it is the obligation of the government to embrace opportunities for the economic and social equality of all individuals. Generally, liberals tend to support social-welfare programs to assist the disadvantaged, to endorse progressive taxation to redistribute income from wealthy classes to the poorer groups in society, and to rely on government regulation to guide the activities of business and the economy. Today, liberals are often identified with policies supporting women’s rights, civil rights, affirmative action, and generally more spending on domestic programs and less on national defense. 3. Often, those holding liberal views tend to identify themselves as Democrats. This does not necessarily mean, though, that all Democrats hold the liberal views just discussed. Rather, it means that, overall, the Democratic Party’s positions on policies and issues find more sympathy among liberals than do those of the Republican Party. d. What Conservatives Believe 1. Conservatism- A set of beliefs that includes a limited role for the national government in helping individuals, support for traditional values and lifestyles, and a cautious response to change 2. In contrast to liberals, conservatives usually feel that the national government has grown too large, that state and local governments should be able to make their own decisions, and that the private sector needs less interference from the government. They tend to believe that the individual is primarily responsible for his or her own well-being. They are generally less supportive of national government programs to redistribute income, such as welfare, and programs that promote equality, such as affirmative action or assistance to disadvantaged groups. 3. In the moral sphere, conservatives tend to support more government regulation of social values and moral decisions than do liberals. Thus, conservatives tend to oppose gay rights legislation and to support stronger curbs on pornography. Conservatives usually show less tolerance for different life choices. They are more likely than liberals to accept government attempts to regulate personal behavior and morals. 4. As with liberals and the Democratic Party, there is a close relationship between conservatives and the Republican Party. Again, however, not all conservatives are Republicans, and not all Republicans subscribe to the conservative views just discussed. It is also worth noting, that while some of the nation’s political leaders are strongly ideological, most Americans are not. In fact, election research suggests that only a small percentage of all Americans, perhaps less than 10 percent, can be identified as ideologues- those who are strongly committed to an ideology. To some extent, this is because most citizens are not all that interested in many political issues. Additionally, most Americans tend to conceive of politics more in terms of the political parties or economic well-being rather than in terms of a particular ideology.
I. World events and domestic crises create political changes that affect the way all of us live. II. Change versus Stability a. People and governments need stability as well as change. Agreement on the rules of the road, on the structure of government, and especially on the processes by which change is made gives people the confidence they need to plan for their own futures. If governments change capriciously or suddenly, no individual or family can be sure that their plans are safe. b. Due to our electoral system, Americans have the opportunity to maintain or to change the balance of power in their national government every two years or so c. The …show more content…
willingness of Americans to respond to new challenges and, when necessary, to demand changes in the way the government works is at the core of our democratic nation. Change- even revolutionary change- is a tribute to the success of a political system. d. Institution- a long-standing, identifiable structure or association that performs certain functions for society. III. What is Politics? a. Why do nations and people struggle so hard to establish a form of government and continue to expend so much effort in politics to keep that government functioning? Politics and forms of government are probably as old as human society. There are many definitions of politics, but all try to explain how human beings regulate conflict within their society. As soon as humans began to live in groups, particularly groups that were larger than their immediate families, they found that they needed to establish about behavior, property, the privileges of individuals and groups, and how people would survive together. b. Politics can best be understood as the process of resolving conflicts and deciding, as Harold Laswell put it, “who gets what, when, and how,” in society. c. The Evolution of Politics 1. In the early versions of human society, the tribe or village, politics was relatively informal. Tribal elders of hereditary chiefs were probably vested with the power to decide who married whom, who was able to build a hut on the best piece of land, and which young people succeeded them into the positions of leadership. 2. Other societies were very “democratic” from the very beginning, giving their members some role in the choice of leadership and rules. Early human societies rarely had the concept of property, so few rules were needed to decide who owned which piece of property or who inherited that piece. The concepts of property and inheritance are much more modern. As society became more complex and humans became settled farmers rather than hunters and gatherers, resolving problems associated with property, inheritance, sales and exchanges, kinship, and rules of behavior became more important. Politics developed into the process by which some of these questions were answered. d. Resolution of Conflicts 1. Inevitably, conflicts arise in society, because members of a group are distinct individuals with unique needs, values, and perspectives. Political processes may be required to help resolve at least three kinds of conflict that may arise in a society: a. People may differ over their beliefs, either religious or personal, or over basic issues of right and wrong. This kind of debate has arisen in recent years over the desirability and validity of state-sanctioned same-sex marriages. The issue of whether individuals should have the right to commit physician-assisted suicide has also aroused this type of debate. b. People within a society may differ greatly in their perception of what the society’s goals should be. For example, Americans disagree about whether the national government has the right to prohibit the medical use of marijuana over a state’s citizens have voted on its legality. The debate over this issue is similar to the one over assisted suicide. c. People also may differ over how the government spends its resources. At any given time, the resources of the government (obtained from society) are limited. Therefore, Americans may disagree over which groups will receive more and which will receive less. IV. The Need for Government and Power a. If politics refers to conflict and conflict resolution, government refers to the institutions, or permanent structures, that have the power to enforce rules that impose order and stability on society. In early human societies, such as families and small tribes, there was no need for formal structure of government. Decisions were made by acknowledged leaders in those societies. In families, all members may meet together to decide values and priorities. When a community makes decisions through informal rules, politics exist- but not government. In most contemporary societies, these activities continue in many forms. Politics can be found in schools, social groups, and any other organized group. When a society reaches a certain level of complexity, however, it becomes necessary to establish a permanent or semi-permanent group of individuals to act for the whole, to become the government. b. Authority and Legitimacy 1. In addition to instituting and carrying out laws regulating individual behavior, most modern governments also attempt to carry out public policies that are intended to fulfill specific national or state goals. 2. Why do citizens obey these laws and subject themselves to these regulations? One reason citizens obey government is that it has the authority to make such laws. By authority, we mean the ultimate right to enforce compliance with decisions. Americans also believe the laws should be obeyed because they possess legitimacy- that is, they are appropriate and rightful. The laws have been made according to the correct and accepted political process by representatives of the people. Therefore, the people accept the laws as legitimate and having political authority. 3. Authority- the features of a leader or an institution that compel obedience, usually because of ascribed legitimacy; for most societies, government is the ultimate authority. 4. Legitimacy- a status conferred by the people on the government’s officials, acts, and institutions through their belief that the government’s actions are an appropriate use of power by a legally constituted governmental authority following correct decision-making policies. These actions are regarded as rightful and entitled to compliance and obedience on the part of citizens. c. The Question of Power 1. Another and perhaps more basic answer as to why we comply with the laws and rules of the government is that we understand that government has the power to enforce the law. We obey environmental laws and pay taxes in part because we acknowledge the legitimacy of the law. We also know that the government has the power to coerce our compliance with the law. Governments differ in the degree to which they must rely on coercion to gain compliance from their citizens. In authoritarian nations, the use of force is far more common than in democratic nations, where most citizens comply with the law because they accept the authority of the government and its officials. In authoritarian or totalitarian regimes, the will of the government is imposed frequently and is upheld by the use of force. 2. The concept of power also involves the ability of one individual or a group of individuals to influence the actions of another individual or group. These uses of power are informal and involve using rewards, rather than the threat of coercion, to ensure compliance. More often than not, political power in the government is a matter of influence and persuasion rather than coercion. V. Who Governs? a. One of the most fundamental questions of politics has to do with which person or groups of people control society through the government. Who possesses the power to make decisions about who gets what and how the benefits of the society are distributed among the people? b.
Sources of Political Power 1. At one extreme is a society governed by a totalitarian regime. In such a political system, a small group of leaders or a single individual- a dictator- makes all political decisions for the society. Every aspect of political, social, and economic life is controlled by the government. The power of the ruler is total (thus, the term totalitarian). 2. Many of our terms for describing the distribution of political power are derived from the ancient Greeks, who were the first Western people to study politics systematically. A society in which political decisions were controlled by a small group was called an oligarchy, meaning rule by a few members of the elite, who generally benefited themselves. Another form of rule by the few was known as aristocracy, meaning rule by the most virtuous, the most talented, or the best suited to the position. Later in European history, aristocracy meant rule by the titled or the upper classes. In contrast to such a top-down form of control was the form known as anarchy, or the condition of no government. Anarchy exists when each individual makes his or her own rules for behavior, and there are no laws and no
government. 3. The Greek term for rule by the people was democracy. Although most Greek philosophers were not convinced that democracy was the best form of government, they understood and debated the possibility of such a political system. Within the limits of their culture, some of the Greek city-states operated as democracies. c. Direct Democracy as a Model 1. From the ancient Greek city-states comes a model for governance that has framed the modern debate over whether the people can make decisions about their own government and laws. The Athenian system of government is usually considered the model for direct democracy because the citizens of that community debated and voted directly on all laws, even those put forward by the ruling council of the city. The most important feature of Athenian democracy was that the legislature was composed of all the citizens. Women, foreigners, and slaves, however, were excluded because they were not citizens. The outstanding feature of this early form of government was that it required a high level of participation from every citizen; that participation was seen as benefiting the individual and the city-state. The Athenians recognized that although a high level of participation might lead to instability in government, citizens, if informed about the issues, could be trusted to make decisions about the laws governing their community. 2. Direct Democracy Today a. Direct democracy has also been practiced in some Swiss cantons and, in the United States, in New England town meetings and in some Midwestern township meetings. b. Some states provide a modern adaptation of direct democracy for their citizens; in most states, representative democracy is supplemented by the initiative or the referendum- a process by which people may vote directly on laws or constitutional amendments. The recall process, which is available in over one-third of the states, allows the people to vote to remove an official from state office. 3. Teledemocracy a. Because of the Internet, Americans have more access to political information than ever before. b. Therefore, to some extent, we are gradually progressing toward a type of teledemocracy in which citizens and their political representatives communicate with each other easily and frequently online. Is it proper to take a further step and create a direct democracy in which citizens cast online votes on important policy issues as they arise? This would be the extreme version of teledemocracy and much more akin to the Athenian direct democracy model. d. The Dangers of Direct Democracy 1. Although they were aware of the Athenian model, the framers of the United States Constitution- for the most part- were opposed to such a system. For many centuries preceding to the country’s establishment, any form of democracy was considered to be dangerous and lead to instability. But in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the idea of government based on the consent of the people gained increasing popularity. Such a government was the main aspiration of the American Revolution, the French Revolution in 1789, and many subsequent ones. The masses, however, were considered to be uneducated to govern themselves, too prone to the influence of demagogues (political leaders who manipulate popular prejudices), and too likely to abrogate minority rights. 2. James Madison defended the new scheme of government set forth in the United States Constitution, while warning of the problems inherent in a “pure democracy”; like many other politicians of his time, Madison feared that pure, or direct, democracy would deteriorate into mob rule. What would keep the majority of the people, if given direct decision-making power, from abusing the rights of minority groups e. Representative Democracy 1. The framers of the United States Constitution chose to craft a republic, meaning a government in which the power rests with the people, who elect representatives to govern them and to make the laws and policies. To eighteenth-century Americans, the idea of a republic also meant a government based on common beliefs and virtues that would be fostered within small communities. The rulers were to be amateurs- good citizens- who would take turns representing their fellow citizens, in a way similar to the Greek model. 2. To allow for change while ensuring a measure of stability, the U.S. Constitution created a form of republican government known as a representative democracy. The people hold the ultimate power over the government through the election process, but policy decisions are all made by policy officials. This modified form of democratic government came to be widely accepted throughout the Western world as a compromise between the desire for democratic control and the needs of the modern state. 1. Principles of Democratic Government 1. All representative democracies rest on the rule of the people as expressed through the election of government officials. 2. Universal suffrage- The right of all adults to vote for their representatives 3. Granting every person the right to participate in the election of officials recognizes the equal voting power of each citizen. This emphasis on the equality of every individual before the law is central to the American system. Because everyone’s vote counts equally, the only way to make fair decisions is by some form of majority will. But to ensure that majority rule does not become oppressive, modern democracies also provides guarantees of minority rights. If certain democratic principles did not protect minorities, the majority might violate the fundamental rights of members of certain groups, especially groups that are unpopular or dissimilar to the majority population. 4. One way to guarantee the continued existence of a representative democracy is to hold free, competitive elections. Thus, the minority always has the opportunity to win elective office. For such elections to be totally open, freedom of the press and speech must be preserved so that opposition candidates may present their criticisms of the government. 2. Constitutional Democracy a. Another key feature of Western representative democracy is that is based on the principle of limited government. The powers of the government are clearly limited, either through a written document or through widely shared beliefs. The U.S. Constitution sets down the fundamental structure of the government and the limits to its activities. Such limits are intended to prevent political decisions based on the whims of ambitions of individuals in government rather than on constitutional principles. VI. Do We Have A Democracy? a. The sheer size and complexity of American society seem to make it unsuitable for direct democracy on a national scale. Some scholars suggest than even representative democracy is difficult to achieve in any modern state. Polling data have shown that many shown that many Americans are neither particular interested in politics. For the average citizen, the national government is too remote, too powerful, and too bureaucratic to be influenced by one vote. b. Democracy for the Few 1. Elite theory- A perspective holding that society is ruled by a small number of people who exercise power in self-interest 2. Elite theory describes an American mass population that in uninterested in politics and that is willing to let leaders make the decisions. Some versions of elite theory posit a small, cohesive, elite class that makes almost all the important decisions regarding the nation, whereas others suggest that votes choose among competing elites. New members of the elite are recruited through the educational system so that the brightest children of the masses allegedly have the opportunity to join the elite stratum. 3. In such a political system, the primary goal of the government is stability, because elites do not want any change in their status. Major social and economic changes takes place only if elites see their resources threatened. However, whereas some policies may be perceived as elitist in nature, other policies many benefit of the public. American elites are more devoted to democratic principles and rights than are most members of the mass public. 4. Elites may have far more power and influence on the political system than do voters from the lower and middle classes. Because they share an educational background from selective schools, a higher income level, and common lifestyles with government policymakers, they are more likely to see government policymakers on a social basis and to form friendships with elective officials. 5. Many observers contend that economic and social developments in the last several years have strengthened the perception that America is governed by an elite, privileged group. Wealthy citizens have educational opportunities that poorer individuals cannot afford. c. Democracy for Groups 1. A different school or thought looks at the characteristics of the American electorate finds that our form of democracy is based on group interests. Even if the average citizen cannot keep up with political issues or cast a deciding vote in any election, the individual’s interests will be protected by groups that represent her or him. 2. Pluralism a. Theorists who subscribe to pluralism as a way of understanding. American politics believe that people are naturally social and inclined to form associations. In the pluralists’ view, politics is the struggle among groups to gain benefits for their members for their members. Given the structure of the American political system, group conflicts tend to be settled by compromise and accommodation so that each interest is satisfied to some extent. b. Pluralists see public theory as resulting from group interactions carried out within Congress and the executive branch. Because they are a multitude of interests, no one group can dominate the political process. Furthermore, because most individuals have more than one interest, conflict among groups does not divide the nation into hostile camps. c. These are a number of flaws in some of the basic assumptions of this theory. Among these are the relatively low number of people who formally join interest groups, the real disadvantages of pluralism for poor citizens, and the belief that group decision making always reflects the best interests of the nation. 3. Hyperpluralism a. With these flaws in mind, critics see a danger that groups may become so powerful that all policies become compromises crafted to satisfy the interests of the largest groups. The interests of the public as a whole, then, cannot be considered. Critics of pluralism have suggested that a democratic system can be virtually paralyzed by the struggle between interest groups. This struggle results in a condition sometimes called hyperpluralism, meaning that groups and their needs control the government and decision-making rather than the government’s acting for the good of the nation. b. Hyperpluralism- A situation that arises when interest groups become so powerful that they dominate the political decision-making structures, rendering any consideration of the greater public interest possible. c. Both pluralism and elite theory attempt to explain the real workings of American democracy. Neither approach is complete, nor can either be proved. Viewing the United States as run by elites reminds us that the founders themselves were not great defenders of the mass public. In contrast, the pluralist view underscores both the advantages and disadvantages of Americans’ inclination to join, to organize, and to pursue benefits for themselves. It points out all of the places within the American political system in which interest groups find it comfortable to work. With this knowledge, the system can be adjusted to keep interest groups within the limits of the public good. VII. Ideas and Politics: Political Culture a. The writers of the American constitution believed that the structures they had created would provide for both democracy and a stable political system. They also believed that the nation would be sustained by its political culture- a concept defined as a patterned set of ideas, values, and ways of thinking about government and politics. b. Political culture- The collection of beliefs and attitudes toward government and the political process held by a community or nation c. Political Socialization and the Dominant Culture 1. There is considerable consensus among American citizens about certain concepts basic to the U.S. political system. Given that the vast majority of Americans are descendants of immigrants having diverse cultural and political backgrounds, how is it possible to account for this consensus? Primarily, it is the result of political socialization- the process by which such beliefs and values are transmitted to new immigrants and to our children. The nation depends on several different agents to transmit the precepts of our national culture to children and newcomers to our nation. 2. Political socialization- the process through which individuals learn a set of political attitudes and form opinions about social issues. The family and the educational system are two of the most important forces in the political socialization process. 3. The most obvious source of political socialization is the family. Parents teach their children about the value of participating in the political system through their example and through our approval. 4. Dominant culture- the values, customs, language, and ideals established by the group or groups in a society that traditionally have controlled politics and government institutions in that society. 5. Before it is possible to discuss some of the most fundamental concepts of the American political culture, it is important to note that these values can be considered those of the dominant culture. The dominant culture in the United States has its roots in Western European civilization. From that civilization, American politics has inherited a bias toward individualism, private property, Judeo-Christian ethics, and, to some extent, the male domination of societal decisions. As the descendants of more recent immigrant groups, especially those from Asian and Islamic nations, become part of the American mainstream, there will be more challenges to the dominant culture. Other cultural heritages honor community or family over individualism and sometimes place far less emphasis on materialism. Additionally, changes in our society have brought about the breakdown of some values, such as the sanctity of the family structure, and the acceptance of others, such as women pursuing careers in the workplace. 6. Certain groups within the United States insist on maintaining their own cultural beliefs and practices. The Amish, for example, are descended from German religious sects and live in close communities in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, as well as in other states. The more conservative Amish groups do not use modern conveniences, such as automobiles or electricity, and have resisted immunizations and mandatory schooling for their children. d. The Fundamental Values 1. Some nations are very homogeneous, with most of their citizens have the same ethnic and religious background and sharing a common history. Achieving consensus on the basic values of the political culture is fairly easy in these nations. Because the United States is a nation of immigrants, socializing people into the political culture is an important function of the society. Over the two hundred years of its history, however, the people of the United States have formed a deep commitment to certain values and ideas. Among these are liberty, equality, and property. 2. Liberty a. The term liberty can be defined as the greatest freedom of individuals that is consistent with the freedom of other individuals in the society. In the United States, our civil liberties include religious freedom- both the right to practice whatever religion one chooses and freedom from any state-imposed religion. Our civil liberties include freedom of speech- the right to express our opinions freely on matters including government actions. Freedom of speech is perhaps one of our most prized liberties, because a democracy could not endure without it. These and other guarantees of liberty are found in the Bill of Rights. b. The process of ensuring liberty for all Americans did not end with the adoption of the Bill of Rights but has continued throughout our history. Political issues often turn on how a particular liberty should be interpreted or the extent to which it should be limited in the interests of society as a whole 3. Equality a. The Declaration of Independence states, “All men are created equal.” Today, that statement has been amended by the political culture to include groups other than white males- women, African Americans, Native Americans, Asian Americans, and others. The definition of equality, however, has been disputed by Americans since the Revolution. Does equality mean simply political equality- the right to register to vote, cast a ballot, and to run for political office? Does equality mean equal opportunity for individuals to develop their talents and skills? Although most Americans believe strongly that all persons should have the opportunity to fulfill their potential, many disagree about whether it is the government’s responsibility to eliminate social and economic differences.
4. Property a. Many Americans probably remember that the “unalienable rights” asserted in the Declaration of Independence are the rights to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The inspiration for that phrase, however, came from the writings of an English philosopher, John Locke (1632-1704), who stated that people’s rights were to life, liberty, and property. In American political culture, the pursuit of happiness and property are considered to be closely related. A capitalist economy is based on private property rights. Indeed, Americans place great value on owning and acquiring material possessions, and seeking profits through new business ventures. b. Property can be seen as giving its owner political power and he liberty to do whatever he or she wants. Simultaneously, the ownership of property immediately creates inequality in society. The desire to own property, however, is so widespread among classes of Americans that socialist movements, which advocate the redistribution of wealth and property, have had a difficult time securing a wide following here. c. Democracy, liberty, equality, and property- these concepts lie at the core of the American political culture. These fundamental principles are so deeply ingrained in U.S. culture that Americans rarely question them. e. The Stability of the Culture 1. Political culture plays an important role in holding society together because the ideas at the core of that culture must persuade people to support and participate in the existing political process. If people begin to doubt the ideas underlying the culture, they will not transmit those beliefs to their children or supporting existing institutions. 2. Stability and Ethnic Subgroups a. Consider that some subgroups, such as Native Americans and the Amish, have made concerted efforts to preserve their language and cultural practices. The question then arises whether these subgroups also subscribe to the values of the American political culture. b. Studies of immigrant groups and ethnic subgroups generally have shown that they are as supportive of the concepts of the American political culture as other Americans are. Some surveys have shown that immigrants are even more enthusiastic about American values than are native-born respondents. 3. Stability in the Face of Contested Elections a. Americans are so strongly wedded to the existing political culture that they do not worry much even during period of great uncertainty. VIII. The Changing Face of America a. The face of America is changing as its citizens age, become more diverse, and generate new needs for laws and policies. Long a nation of growth, the United States has become a middle-aged nation with a low birthrate and an increasing number of older citizens who want services from the government. Both the aging of the population and its changing ethnic composition will have significant political consequences. b. The Aging of America 1. The population is aging quickly; the median age was thirty-five in the year 2000. Even more startling is the fact that almost 13 percent of the population is now sixty-five years old or older. By the year 2050, more than one-fourth of the population will be retired or approaching retirement. 2. The shrinking of the younger population, not only in the United States but in all developed countries of the world, is a phenomenon not seen since the dying days of the Roman Empire. The implications for society are significant. For one thing, if the current retirement and pension systems, including Social Security, remain in place, a very large proportion of each worker’s wages will go to taxes to support benefits for the retired population. For another, it means that to increase the younger population, we will need to open the doors to more immigrants- a politically divisive issue. All developed nations will be facing similar challenges and issues as their populations continue to age. c. Ethnic Change 1. The ethnic character of the United States is also changing. Whites have a very low birthrate, whereas African Americans and Hispanics have more children per family. 2. In some areas today, such as Los Angeles and other cities and countries across the Southwest, Mexican Americans now constitute a majority of the population. Significantly, in 2001, the Census Bureau announced that in California, the nation’s most populous state, whites had become a minority. As a result of this shift in minority-majority status, it is often unclear what diversity means and what integration politics should aim to accomplish. Somewhat, ironically, many policies that were originally designed to integrate members of minority groups into the mainstream are now being used to achieve the opposite; to ensure that whites can participate in non-white programs. d. Other Trends 1. Other changes in the face of America have more to do with our changing society. More Americans are filling the urban places of the nation in comparison with rural areas. Women continue to increase their participation in the educational system. By the beginning of the new century, as many women as men had completed their high school educations, and the percentage of women who have completed college continues to grow. 2. Change also continues in the structure of American families, although the traditional two-parent family is still very strong. About one-fourth of the children of one-parent families live in poverty. 3. Other changes also have consequences for social policies. Although the national government has been committed to ending poverty since the mid-1960s, over one-tenth of all Americans still live in households that have incomes below the poverty line. The number of Americans who lack basic skills is also disturbing; recent national surveys have found that about one-fifth of all Americans are barely literate and have difficulty dealing with simple documents. 4. Each of these trends raises political questions for the society as a whole. These facts challenge voters and their representatives to change policies in order to address these issues- if society can agree on how to do so. IX. Ideas and Politics: Ideology a. An ideology is a closely linked set of beliefs about the goal of politics and the most desirable political order. True ideologies are well-organized theories that can guide virtually every decision that an individual or society can make. The major ideologies of our time are usually represented as a continuum from the far left to the far right, according to their views of the role government should play in a society. On the extreme left of the spectrum are those, such as Communists, who believe that the government should exercise central control over the economy and the political system in the interests of promoting total equality and security. Those on the extreme right of the spectrum, such as Libertarians, believe that the government should play a minimal role in society and that individuals should have the greatest political and economic freedom possible. b. Most Americans, though, do not derive their views on politics from the more extreme ideologies. In fact, the U.S. political spectrum has been dominated for decades by two relatively moderate ideological positions: liberalism and conservatism. c. What Liberals Believe 1. Liberalism- A set of beliefs that includes the advocacy of positive government action to improve the welfare of individuals, support for civil rights, and tolerance for political and social change 2. American liberals believe that the government should take strong positive action to solve the nation’s economic and social problems. They believe that it is the obligation of the government to embrace opportunities for the economic and social equality of all individuals. Generally, liberals tend to support social-welfare programs to assist the disadvantaged, to endorse progressive taxation to redistribute income from wealthy classes to the poorer groups in society, and to rely on government regulation to guide the activities of business and the economy. Today, liberals are often identified with policies supporting women’s rights, civil rights, affirmative action, and generally more spending on domestic programs and less on national defense. 3. Often, those holding liberal views tend to identify themselves as Democrats. This does not necessarily mean, though, that all Democrats hold the liberal views just discussed. Rather, it means that, overall, the Democratic Party’s positions on policies and issues find more sympathy among liberals than do those of the Republican Party. d. What Conservatives Believe 1. Conservatism- A set of beliefs that includes a limited role for the national government in helping individuals, support for traditional values and lifestyles, and a cautious response to change 2. In contrast to liberals, conservatives usually feel that the national government has grown too large, that state and local governments should be able to make their own decisions, and that the private sector needs less interference from the government. They tend to believe that the individual is primarily responsible for his or her own well-being. They are generally less supportive of national government programs to redistribute income, such as welfare, and programs that promote equality, such as affirmative action or assistance to disadvantaged groups. 3. In the moral sphere, conservatives tend to support more government regulation of social values and moral decisions than do liberals. Thus, conservatives tend to oppose gay rights legislation and to support stronger curbs on pornography. Conservatives usually show less tolerance for different life choices. They are more likely than liberals to accept government attempts to regulate personal behavior and morals. 4. As with liberals and the Democratic Party, there is a close relationship between conservatives and the Republican Party. Again, however, not all conservatives are Republicans, and not all Republicans subscribe to the conservative views just discussed. It is also worth noting, that while some of the nation’s political leaders are strongly ideological, most Americans are not. In fact, election research suggests that only a small percentage of all Americans, perhaps less than 10 percent, can be identified as ideologues- those who are strongly committed to an ideology. To some extent, this is because most citizens are not all that interested in many political issues. Additionally, most Americans tend to conceive of politics more in terms of the political parties or economic well-being rather than in terms of a particular ideology.