Political Systems and Their Functions in Society

Contents
INTRODUCTION 2
TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS AND MODERN EXAMPLES 3
MONARCHY 3
THEOCRACY 3
MILITARY 4
DEMOCRACY 4
AUTHORITARIANISM OR SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM 5
THE FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS 6
EXAMPLES OF TWO CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL SYSTEMS 8
CHINA – Communist Single-Party Authoritarian State 8
SRI LANKA –Democratic Socialist Republican State 9
CONCLUSION 10
REFERENCES 11
BIBLIOGRAPHY 11

INTRODUCTION
The revolution and uprising in many Middle Eastern countries recently began with disgruntled and disillusioned citizens rising up against their ruling powers. Starting in Cairo, Egypt in January 2011, pro-democratic citizens staged protests demanding that Hosni Mubarak, the president for over three decades, step down. Other countries in the region followed suite: Tunisia, Libya and now Syria. These events served to open the eyes of governments worldwide to the fact that a political system of a country has a direct impact on the life of every citizen, and that of course citizens in return can have a say on how they wish to be governed.
Of course, politics in its broader sense is a part of every man’s life as it deals “with the activities of human beings” (Volpi, 2008). Whether in the workplace or in the family, the power struggle exists, causing conflict and heartache. Yet on a macro-level Aristotle’s belief about politics was that its object “was the good of the community…, and the role of the politicians… was to ensure the good functioning of the polity in order to allow the community to reach its normative goals.” (Volpi)
In order for politics to help society and its citizens, every nation state has its own political institutions. Political institutions are defined by D. Alan Heslop (2008) as “organizations which create, enforce, and apply laws; that mediate conflict; make (governmental) policy on the economy and social systems; and otherwise provide representation for the populous. Examples of such political institutions include political parties, trade unions, and the (legal) courts.”
He also states that “the term 'Political Institutions ' may also refer to the recognized structure of rules and principles within which the above organizations operate, including such concepts as the right to vote, responsible government, and accountability. “The individual gets involved in the political process of his nation state through voting, registering opinions, selecting political leaders, and influencing political opinion.
Looking at the political map today we see many changes are rampant in the world. The political systems of many countries have come crashing down or have transitioned or re-configured to suit the needs of the powerful elite or for the common good of the majority.
TYPES OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS AND MODERN EXAMPLES
Giddens (2005), profiles three types of political systems: Monarchy, Liberal Democracy and Authoritarianism. Yet O’Connor (2012) states that DK Publishing 's (2006) How Governments Work holds that there are six main types of political systems: Monarchal, Theocratic, Military, Democratic, Single party, and Transitional. I will be examining the first five below.
MONARCHY
According to Giddens this is a system, where a single person who is in power had their power passed down through their family for generations. O’Connor states that an Absolute Monarchy may also have cabinet officials or symbolic parliaments, but such institutions can be dissolved or altered at will. He says there are currently 31 such monarchies in the world today, the most prominent being the Arab "oil monarchies” including: “Morocco (the longest-running kingdom in the Arab world); Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Kuwait (the most politically open)”.
Yet, there are monarchies where the monarch’s powers are limited, and as seen in Britain and Belgium, they have become little more than figureheads. In such constitutional monarchies Giddens says the monarch’s power is restricted by the constitution and they rarely influence the course of political events.
THEOCRACY
According to O’Connor a system where the roles of priest and ruler are combined, or more generally, where there is a claim to divine mandates or divine powers that govern civil affairs. O’ Connor writes “Iran became a theocracy under Ayatollah Khomeini (1900-1989) who claimed all power to establish laws belonged exclusively to God, and implemented a conception of Sharia law known as velayat-e faqih (guardianship of the Islamic jurists)” Further adding that some of the notable characteristics of Iranian theocracy include a disdain for international law; an uneasy relation with what passes for "modernity" across the rest of the globe and opposition to the idea of equality for women. Vatican City is also an old theocracy located with the city of Rome. O’Connor states that the Vatican recognizes international law and diplomatic relations are enjoyed with 173 nation-states.
MILITARY
According to O’Connor this is a system of rule by military strongman or junta and “ typically occurs as part of the evolution of single-party rule or when some national emergency merits the declaration of martial law and the leader in office happens to have (or assumes) some military rank.” Strongman or junta leadership is distinct from a military dictatorship, which comes about via a coup-d 'etat (strike against the state). Further some common characteristics of military rule include sacking Parliament and control over the judicial branch.
According to O’Connor some countries under military rule include: “Pakistan, Congo, Myanmar (Burma) which has been under 50 years of military junta rule with a disastrous human rights record; and Sudan, which has moved toward a curious mixture of military rule with Islamic law after repeated failures over the years with other political experiments.” Military rule should be distinguished from ordinary militarism which is the belief that a country should maintain a strong military capability and be prepared to use it. Militarism can co-exist with democracy, but most military rule is non-democratic and further makes any transition to democracy difficult.
DEMOCRACY
The Greek term “demokratia” meaning broadly ‘the rule of the people’ is defined by Giddens as a political system “in which the people, not monarchs or aristocracies, rule.” Through it, citizens get the opportunity to participate in the political processes that will shape and define their lives. According to O’Connor besides competitive elections, some essential elements of a democracy include: human rights; freedom of expression; and equality before the law. The two most common types of this system in the world are participatory (or direct democracy) and representative democracy.
Participatory democracy was the first type practiced in ancient Greece. Here, every citizen of the state (a small minority of the society back then) had the opportunity to be a part of making political decisions that would affect him. In modern societies this system would prove to be highly impractical if used on a large scale. On the other hand Representative democracy is more commonly practised today. Giddens states that in this type of democracy “decisions affecting a community are taken, not by its members as a whole, but by people they have elected for this purpose”. He also says that this system is used in national government to elect representatives for parties to parliament and even in provinces and districts where collective decisions are taken. Further Giddens writes that liberal democracies have become very popular throughout the world. In such countries “voters can choose between two or more parties and … the mass of the adult population has the right to vote’.
Further Heslop uncovers that democratic systems include versions known as deliberative democracy, in which citizens approach decision making by considering different viewpoints and options; as well as democratic socialism, as is reputed to be practiced in Sri Lanka, in which citizens help make decisions or vote for policies that are socialistic in nature and democratic capitalism.
O’Connor writes that most democracies in the world today are called republics: “a government in which a restricted group of citizens form a political unit, usually under the auspice of a charter, which directs them to elect representatives who will govern the state.” In a democracy the minority has neither voice nor rights to refuse to accept the dictatorial majority. Yet in a republic the minority has an advisory role. Therefore instead of majority rule and dissent in a democracy, ideally a republic is more peaceful. Some types of republics one can find around the world are Crowned (a constitutional monarchy might be considered a crowned republic), Single party, Capitalist Republic, Federal (as in the United States) and Parliamentary Republic
AUTHORITARIANISM OR SINGLE PARTY SYSTEM
According to O’Connor single party rule is “a government without opposition”; the sort which allowed Hitler, Mussolini, Franco, Castro, Ho Chi Minh, and Mao Zedong to become dictators. Giddens writes that, Authoritarian states deny or restrict the participation of citizens in political affairs. He says the needs and interests of the state are elevated over those of the average citizen and there are “no legal mechanisms… for opposing government or for removing a leader from power.” Communism and Dictatorship are authoritarian political systems.
As Giddens writes, Communist states believe themselves to be democratic, following the ideology taught by Marx and Lenin though this is highly disputed when one views Western democracies. A single-party governs these states and the ‘democratic’ choice comes in voting for one of many candidates from the party. As the system existed in the former Soviet Union, a planned economy is often part of the governing class, and in many cases resources are taken and then redistributed to others, at the top of the system. O’Connor states that China is the most well-known Single party system following a communist ideology; others being Cuba (Communist), Libya (Socialist), and Syria (Baath Party).
Another Authoritarian system is Dictatorship. As found in North Korea, a single person rules the country and makes all the political decisions. Constitutions and parliaments do not restrict them (Heslop, 2008). Those governed cannot participate in political affairs and elections are where the dictator is the only candidate.
THE FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL SYSTEMS
Max Weber once said: "a political system is one which successfully claims a monopoly over the legitimate use of physical force." What this means is that a political system helps maintain domestic order in a society.
Heslop (2008) states that political systems serve to control the resources and the individuals in a nation and act as an organizing power in all contemporary societies. He also writes that it secures the right to life of its citizens and protects their political and social rights, finally acting as a device for the resolution of conflict. It also regulates the economic life of a state. According to O’Connor, Almond et al. 's (2007) structural-functional approach recognized that any political system is made up of seven key functions as follows:
1. Political recruitment and socialization- O’Connor states this means getting people to fulfill all the political roles associated with the political system from voters to leaders; forming positive attitudes, values, beliefs and opinions which maintain or sustain the political system.
2. Political communication - O’Connor states this means transmitting politically-relevant information to citizens. There must be a free flow of information from society to polity and from one political structure to another. Almond (2007) holds that one can compare the political systems of different countries quite well by only looking at the political communications.
3. Interest articulation - O’Connor states this means expressing/making demands upon the political system. Demands for political action need to be formulated and expressed properly and if groups do not find open channels to express their interests and needs, their demands will go unsatisfied and they may erupt in violence, requiring suppression by the elite.
4. Interest aggregation- O’Connor states this means selecting demands and combining them into a manageable number of alternatives. Demands must be converted into policy alternatives, and political parties are the main instrument for this, but in some instances, the aggregation function may be performed by the legislature, the bureaucracy, the mass media, and interest groups of a civic type.
5. Rule-making – O’Connor states this means taking demands and converting them into the authoritative decisions of the political system.
6. Rule application - O’Connor states this means administering or putting the decisions into effect. Rules are made to be enforced, and it is up to the bureaucracy to do this. The presence of differentiated and well-developed rule application structures greatly expand the capability of a political system to manipulate its environment.
7. Rule adjudication- O’Connor states this means making authoritative decisions about whether or not a rule has been transgressed in given cases. It is the duty of the judiciary to interpret the laws and determine guilt or innocence. An independent judiciary also works best for resolving conflicts which break out between citizens.

The three branches of government within the political system serve unique functions which will be examined next:
THE LEGISLATURE: According to Ornstein (1992) Legislatures represent a permanent and independent link between the populace and the government. “Through elections, petitions, lobbying, and participation in political parties and interest groups, citizens can express their will and affect the outcomes of the legislative process.” As John Stuart Mill wrote in 1862, in a representative democracy the legislature acts as the eyes, ears, and voice of the people. They often play a role in nondemocratic regimes as well. One example is the Supreme Soviet of the former Soviet Union. They lend legitimacy to the ruling government and thereby contribute to the stability of the political system as a whole.
THE JUDICIARY: Prof. Abram Chayes, (2006) says "[Judicial action in the last two decades] adds up to a radical transformation of the role and function of the judiciary in American life. Its chief function now is as a catalyst of social change with judges acting as planners of large scale." In the U.S.A the judicial branch consists of the United States Supreme Court and lower federal courts. Its primary function is to hear cases that challenge legislation or require interpretation of that legislation.
THE EXECUTIVE: According to Heslop the primary power of the executive branch rests with the president, who chooses his vice president, and his Cabinet members who head the respective departments. A crucial function of the executive branch in the U.S.A is to ensure that laws are carried out and enforced to facilitate such day-to-day responsibilities of the federal government as collecting taxes, safeguarding the homeland and representing the United States ' political and economic interests around the world.
EXAMPLES OF TWO CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL SYSTEMS
CHINA – Communist Single-Party Authoritarian State
According to Martin and Lawrence (2012) China is the only Communist Party-led authoritarian state in the G-20 grouping of major economies. China’s Communist Party dominates state and society in China, and is committed to maintaining a permanent monopoly on power, and is intolerant of those who question its right to rule.
They write that the Chinese Communist Party (CCP or Party) has been in power in China for more than six decades. It controls China’s 2.25 million-strong military, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) and personnel appointments across all political institutions, the military, state-owned corporations, and public institutions. It controls the media, the judiciary and the internal security apparatus. Nonetheless, analysts consider China’s political system is neither monolithic nor rigidly hierarchical. “Jockeying among leaders and institutions representing different sets of interests is common at every level of the system. Even delegates to the National People’s Congress, China’s weak legislature, sometimes attempt to push back against the government, the courts, and the public prosecutor’s office.
According to Martin and Lawrence “many analysts, both in China and abroad, have questioned the long-term viability of China’s current political system. China’s outgoing Premier Wen Jiabao has called for political reform, including reform of “the leadership system of the party and the state,” warning that, “Without the success of political structural reform, it is impossible for us to fully institute economic structural reform.”
SRI LANKA –Democratic Socialist Republican State
According to Fernando (2012) the claim that Sri Lanka is a democratic nation is very questionable. The power of the executive which overrides and interferes with other branches of political institutions combined with the lack of true freedom of citizens to participate in political processes, give cause for doubt.
Fernando writes that since 1977, inspired by the political system in Singapore, when the executive presidential system was created, the ruling party had almost 80% of the seats in Parliament. Their freedom to create laws was utilized unscrupulously. The 17th Amendment was then implemented to limit the power of the executive president. This experiment was short-lived when President Rajapaksa 's government introduced the 18th Amendment.
Fernando states that today the executive presidential system does not allow for the independent functioning of the prosecutor 's office. Effectively, the prosecutors ' office works at the behest of the government’. Moreover, influence on judicial decisions is secured by the president 's selected appointment of judges to the judicial positions in the state and even their impeachment (e.g.: Chief Justice Shirani Bandaranayake). He states “Further since 1972, there have been attempts to diminish the power and authority of the courts of law in Sri Lanka. The unfortunate success of these attempts has severely affected the protection of the citizens ' personal freedoms, Sri Lanka 's democratic foundations and the rule of law system.”
Another bone of contention according to Fernando is the fact that the public institutions have been crippled in Sri Lanka. “The vacuum that has been created by the absence of these public institutions is now being filled by the military, paramilitary forces and intelligence agencies. One needs to deal with these if the rule of law and democracy is to return to Sri Lanka.”
Over the past few decades, the participation of the people in the political and social life of Sri Lanka has been curtailed. The idea of an open society, and that any citizen can engage in peaceful political activity is no longer valid in relation to Sri Lanka. Criticizing the government or discussing matters of public interest are now considered subversive.
Recent stirrings in the media over the government’s efforts to steamroll its way through the legislature to pass the Divineguma Bill led the editorial (Sunday Times October 2012) to state “It is crystal clear that the intention of the Government is to take more and more control of the State machinery and concentrate it under a small coterie.” Is Sri Lanka a truly democratic state? One would be distressed to state that our state shares more of the characteristics of a Totalitarian state.
CONCLUSION
The democratic principles of the American republic were questioned recently in the satirical comedy The Dictator (2012). The character of General Admiral Haffaz Aladeen (on a state visit from the North African country he rules with an iron fist) speaks to a crowd of wary New Yorkers extolling the virtues of dictatorship.
“Imagine if America was a dictatorship; you could let 1 percent of the people have all the nation’s wealth. You could help your rich friends get richer by cutting their taxes and bailing them out when they gamble and lose. You could ignore the needs of the poor for health care and education. Your media would appear free, but would secretly be controlled by one person and his family. …” Contemplating on his words one does realize that these dictatorial practices are often heard to be practiced in the most powerful Federal Republic that stresses democratic principles: The United States of America.
In conclusion, we find that an evaluation of the political ideologies of political systems falls far from the mark when put into practice. Contemporary political systems reflect the ambition, the good intentions and the imperfection of the imperfect humans who run them.
REFERENCES
Anon. 2012. Divineguma Bill: Signs of Authoritarianism. The Sunday Times, 7 Oct.p.12
Fernando, B., 2012. Sri Lanka: The rule of law and Democracy in Sri Lanka. The Asian Human Rights Commission. 21 March
Giddens, A., 2005. Sociology. 4th ed. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Ltd
Heslop, D. Alan 2008. Political System (Online) (Updated 7 May 2008). Available at: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36735/The-judiciary#toc36736
Lawrence, Susan V., & Martin, Michael F., (Congressional Research Service) 2012., Understanding China’s Political System. Washington D.C.
O’Connor, T., 2012. The Structural-Functional Classification of Political Systems. (Online) (Updated 18 Oct 2012). Available at: http://www.drtomoconnor.com/4090/4090lect02a.
Ornstein, N., 1992. The Role of the Legislature in a Democracy: Freedom Paper No.3. Available at: InfoUSA http://infousa.state.gov/media/pressfreedom/freedom3.htm
The Dictator.2012 (DVD) Los Angeles: Paramount Pictures
Volpi, F., 2008. Political Parties. In: Turner, Bryan A., The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Beetham, D., & Boyle, K., 2001. What is Democracy? In: Giddens, A., Sociology: Introductory Readings. London: Polity Press
Scimecca, Joseph.A. & Sherman, Arnold.K., 1992. Sociology: Analysis and Application. U.S.A:Kendall/Hunt Publishing
Wilson,W. & Kidd, A., 1998. Sociology: for GCSE and Modern Studies. London: Collins Educational

References: Anon. 2012. Divineguma Bill: Signs of Authoritarianism. The Sunday Times, 7 Oct.p.12 Fernando, B., 2012 Giddens, A., 2005. Sociology. 4th ed. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Ltd Heslop, D O’Connor, T., 2012. The Structural-Functional Classification of Political Systems. (Online) (Updated 18 Oct 2012). Available at: http://www.drtomoconnor.com/4090/4090lect02a. Ornstein, N., 1992. The Role of the Legislature in a Democracy: Freedom Paper No.3. Available at: InfoUSA http://infousa.state.gov/media/pressfreedom/freedom3.htm The Dictator.2012 (DVD) Los Angeles: Paramount Pictures Volpi, F., 2008. Political Parties. In: Turner, Bryan A., The Cambridge Dictionary of Sociology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press BIBLIOGRAPHY Beetham, D., & Boyle, K., 2001. What is Democracy? In: Giddens, A., Sociology: Introductory Readings. London: Polity Press Scimecca, Joseph.A Wilson,W. & Kidd, A., 1998. Sociology: for GCSE and Modern Studies. London: Collins Educational