Psilocybin Mushrooms Research Papers

Studies in the field of psychedelics, specifically the use of psilocybin mushrooms, are now being revitalized with the goal of scientifically advancing the existing treatment of many neural and physical disorders, proving to be far less harmful to an individual than what is common amongst other illegal substances (Heroin, LSD and Ecstasy) of the same illegal, Schedule One, stature (Ginad Source).
One of the most diverse resources on the web, as a grassroots website, is one that contains an encyclopedia of psychoactive substances, cataloguing resources on over three hundred and fifty types. Launched in 1995, Erowid, has served its purpose as a destination on the web for those interested in drugs ranging from psilocybin mushrooms to Absinthe,
to many doctors and toxicologists (Witt, 2015). From this website, information on mushrooms are easily accessible and documented from many credible sources and publications.
Growing wild across the United States, and other countries around the world, there are over one hundred and eighty documented species of mushrooms that contain psilocybin chemicals.
Most are cultivated instead of being picked wild, although just as simple and inexpensive (Wittman, 2006) The mushrooms produce eccentric mental states, in relation to the sensitivity of the individual and the dose amount. The substance is also characterized as being non-physically addicting where an individuals desire diminishes after initial use (Köhler, 2004) Using mushrooms repeatedly is likely to lead to a lesser experience the second time around. However, since 1968, the possession of psilocybin mushrooms has been illegal in the United States (Erowid,
n.d.).
In the 1960s, renowned Swiss chemist Albert Hofmann who accidently discovered LSD, produced psilocybin synthetically for the first time. He isolated the chemical from the Psilocybe mexicana, a Central American mushroom. The first pharmacological use of the synthetic derivative was marketed by Sandoz, a pharmaceutical company, as Indocybin® and distributed for research and psychotherapeutical purposes. Because the drug only had short-lived time that it was available for experimentation, very little pharmacological data on psilocybin existed until recently. One factor with the new clinical research being performed is the consideration the variations between synthetic and naturally occurring psilocybin in mushrooms.
There exists many sources both digitally and in print that document the changing attitude of the use of psilocybin mushrooms, whether personal accounts of those conducting the study or those that are recounting the studies of another individual. Many articles discuss the same experiments taking place, allowing for many views to be offered on the matter at hand. An article from Scientific American, dated 2014, discusses the difficulty that researchers are running into when wanting to perform clinical research with the substance. Since the Controlled Substance Art tiered substance one drugs as having ‘no currently accepted use’ researcher are not able to examine their potential therapeutic properties because they are banned. Because of this, many documented research studies rely on being privately and still takes years to receive ethical approval. To conduct the studies, researchers also need the substance itself, mushrooms, which has its own complications. With other studies, medicinal supplies can be ordered from many distributors through chemical supply catalogues, which is not the case with psilocybin mushrooms which cannot be obtained conventionally (The Editors, 2014).
There are many types of wild mushrooms that induce psychedelic effects with consumption. Evolutionarily, there are four gensuses that produce the outcome: Psilocybe, Copelandia, Panaeolus (the three most common) and Amanita (having hallucinogenic effects produced by different chemical makeup). What is consumed by individuals varies of the location and region, for instance in the United States the most common is Psilocybe Semilanceata or the‘Liberty Cap’ mushroom and Psilocye Cubensis. Understanding that are many species of mushrooms that fit under the general category of psilocybin, shows the difficulty that researchers are experiencing, when conducting trials that accuracy and control play a key role in obtaining scientifically backed results. The mushrooms produce the same hallucinogenic effect using the same mechanisms, however the levels of active psychotropic chemicals varies, proving difficult to accurately determine dosage. In many cases, the only illegality of the substance is the active chemicals in dried form and not the fresh, unprepared mushrooms themselves (Ginad.)
An earlier dated article posted to Wired in 2008 summarizes a study administered by two neuroscientists, where more than half of the volunteers said the psychedelic experience was significant in their lives. This study was the first to be run and scientifically documented in forty years, since the outlaw of the substance, testing people in a clinical setting. The effects of the experience for many were memorable for more than a year. At the time, several laboratories began to receive approval for conducting hallucinogenic studies. The neurological effect previously unknown was just then being documented. The effects of the psilocybin chemical were hypothesized to be able to treat or aid pain and anxiety, not limited to obsessive-compulsive disorder and eating disorders (Keim, 2014).
The two individuals discussed in the previous account from Wired co-wrote an article for the Scientific American. Their personal account documents their own studies with the use hallucinogens for medicinal benefits in greater detail. From their findings a capsule of the psilocybin chemical composition derived from mushrooms proved to induce psychological realignment that in comparison would take decades to achieve in a traditional therapist, patient interaction that is common therapeutic practice. When creating the initial experiment, original cases from the sixties were hard to go off of as being supportive evidence, because most accounts were researcher’s first-hand experiences of taking psilocybin mushrooms, with very little clinical trials being performed. Predictions were made from initial observations and results in the sixties of what specifically could be treated with psilocybin mushrooms, including alcoholism, addiction to other drugs, psychosomatic disorder, and autism. Even the optimum studies did not incorporate common control conditions that are required by the IRB, International Review Board. Research methodology and ethics have changed in the modern era, which with time will help determine is such predictions can be proven true consistently (Griffiths & Grob, 2010).
Studies have shown that psilocin, the main active chemical in psilocybin mushrooms, is a mixed receptor agonist, binding to the receptor to activate, and unlike LSD it does not have an effect on the dopamine receptor and instead on the serotonin receptor.
The major effects on the individual are related to the central nervous system with some effects on the sympathetic nervous system (conditioned flight or fight response.) The effects can also vary between individuals and even from one dosage to another for the same individual. The most desired effects for a ‘good trip’ range from feelings of relaxation, visual enhancement, euphoria, to altered perception of real events, images and faces, or real hallucinations. The physiological effects are easier to properly document, not relying on an individual’s own perception, and tend to not be as significant, including slight increase in heart rate, blood pressure and breathing while body temperature remains
normal.
There are many issues with the current laws in place that prevent many drugs to be considered illegal under the Schedules of Controlled Substance Act, to be utilized in the medicinal field. In specific to psilocybin mushrooms, there are many misconceptions about the effects of the drug. Just as a laboratory produced prescription drug might, psilocybin occurs naturally instead and has the same effects as many other serotonin analogues. Further research is key to document to gain supportive evidence on the various clinical trial successes.