Representations Of Femininity In Three Walt Disney Animated Features

“Behind the Fair Façade”
Representations of Femininity in Three Walt Disney Animated Features

Bachelor Thesis
Bethany Schouten, 3278972
Media en Cultuurwetenschappen
Genderstudies

Supervisor:
Domitilla Olivieri
May 31st, 2011

“Behind the Fair Façade”
Representations of Femininity in Three Walt Disney Animated Features

Bachelor thesis by Bethany Schouten, 3278972

Index
Introduction 3

Methodological and theoretical Framework 4

Corpus 9

The Research: SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS 11

The Research: THE LITTLE MERMAID 18

The Research: THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG 24

Findings and Interpretation 31

Identity Formation 35

Conclusion 38

Literature
41

Media 43
Introduction
The Walt Disney Company’s cultural products have been a great influence on popular culture since the 1930s and an inspiration for generations all over the world ever since. For many, including myself, the Princes, Princesses and fantastical creatures of Disney’s animated fairy tales have become symbols of their youth. Seeing the films gives rise to a feeling of nostalgia, they become a memento of one’s childhood world. But what kind of world is this? What kind of realities do Disney’s fantastical representations construct? In my thesis, I will analyze a specific element of Disney films: gender roles constructed through the representation of femininity in their animated features. I will study how this representation changes over time: has Disney’s highly criticized construction of gender roles changed over time, and if so, what realities do contemporary Disney discourses construct? I propose to research how femininity is represented in Walt Disney‘s animated features, how this representation changes over time and what kind of effects this has on the identity formation of young girls.
According to Judith Lorber, the institution of gender relies in part on what she refers to as gender imagery: “the cultural representations of gender and embodiment of gender in symbolic language and artistic productions that reproduce and legitimate gender statuses” (Lorber in Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 711). Walt Disney’s animated features which emphasize such things as women’s passivity and beauty, are indeed gendered scripts and serve to legitimatize and support the dominant gender system (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 711). In my study I will focus on the representation of femininity and how this influences young girls. Accordingly, I will analyze the feminine beauty ideal. The feminine beauty ideal is that which enforces that “the socially constructed notion that physical attractiveness is one of women’s most important assets, and something all women should strive to achieve and maintain” (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 711). This ideal is an important focus of my study. The feminine ideal is viewed by many as an oppressive patriarchal practice which objectifies and devalues women, there are however women/girls who ‘willingly’ engage in this while claiming not to feel oppressed, but empowered (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 711-712). Furthermore, I will look at what other kinds of femininity are presented. What other forms of femininity are offered to those who do not fit into the so-called feminine ideal? This analysis of some of Walt Disney’s animated features can provide insights into the relationship between gender, power and culture while drawing on the cultural and social significance of beauty to women’s lives (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 712).

Methodological and theoretical Framework
Representation
Crucial to the methodological and theoretical framework of this research is an understanding of representation as a construction of reality. Walt Disney animated features do not present a copy of the real world, they are a construction of one. Accordingly, ideas about femininity, masculinity, good and evil are constructed.
In her text on the notion of discourse in media research, Myra MacDonald concisely expresses the relevance for my current research of this definition of representation:
Critics of what became known as the ‘images of women’ approach to analysis of women’s representation in the media and culture […] pointed out that the media and cultural output also manifestly have a hand in constructing ideas of femininity in the public mind that make an input to the ‘reality’ of gendered behavior and attitudes.
(MacDonald, 2003: 13, original emphasis)
Representation is the production of meaning through language. “Things don’t mean: we construct meaning, using representational systems - concepts and signs” (Hall, 1997: 25). Meaning depends not only on the material quality of the sign, but on its symbolic function. It is only because a sound or image symbolizes and represents something, that it can convey meaning (Hall, 1997: 26).
Discourse
The term discourse refers to Michel Foucault’s conceptualization of the interplay of power, culture and knowledge. By discourse Foucault means “a group of statements which provide a language for talking about - a way of representing the knowledge about - a particular historical moment. … Discourse is about the production of knowledge through language. But … since all social practices entail meaning, and meanings shape and influence what we do - our conduct – all practices have a discursive aspect” (Hall, 1997: 44). According to Foucault, “discourse […] never consists of one statement, one text, one action or one source. The same discourse, characteristic of the way of thinking or the state of knowledge at any one time (what Foucault called the episteme) will appear across a range of texts, and as forms of conduct, at a number of different institutional sites within society” (Hall, 1997: 44). Therefore, “nothing has any meaning outside of discourse” (Foucault in Hall, 1997, 45). Physical things and actions do exist, but they do not mean anything outside of discourse. Actions and things only have meaning and become objects of knowledge within discourse, since we can only have knowledge of things if they have a meaning. It is discourse, not the things itself, which produces knowledge. Subjects like beauty, femininity, masculinity, evil, good and sexuality only exist meaningfully within the discourses about them (Hall, 1997: 44-45).
Foucault’s conceptualization of discourse and power, as he elaborates them in The Will to Knowledge, further explains what he means with discourse. Foucault argues that discourse exerts power on both the construction of reality and the formation of the subject. It is a part of the ubiquitous dispositif, “the said as much as the unsaid” (Foucault, 1980: 194), which is comprised of practices, technologies and discourses: all powers that influence the subject. This dispositif does not ‘hide’ some other factual (social) reality, as much as it constructs it. Through the whole of the dispositif, realities are constructed. Important to note is that this reality which is constructed through culture and media always exists within a spectrum of other discourses (MacDonald, 2003: 19) and the whole of material realities (MacDonald, 2003: 25). This is indeed what Foucault calls the dispositif.
The concept of power is thus of great importance to Foucault. He argues that knowledge is always enmeshed in relations of power and besides from knowledge being a form of power, power influences questions as to when certain knowledge should and should not be applied (Hall, 1997: 47-48). According to Foucault, knowledge, which is connected to power, does not only claim the authority of ‘the truth’, but it has the power to make things true: “All knowledge, once applied in the real world, has real effects, and in that sense at least, ‘becomes true’” (Hall, 1997: 49). Truth does not exist outside power and discourse, truth is produced (Hall, 1997: 49). Moreover, Foucault states that power circulates, power operates at every level of the (social) life (Hall, 1997: 49-50). Foucault goes on to explain that power is not only negative and repressing, but that it is also productive. “It does not only weigh on us as a force that says no, but … it traverses and produces things, it induces pleasure, forms of knowledge, produces discourse. It needs to be thought of as a productive network, which runs through the whole social body” (Foucault in Hall, 1997: 50). A good example is the efforts to control normative femininity (and masculinity). This effort to control produces discourse in the way that it opens up discussions about sex, television, literature, history, articles, study programs and more. Foucault shows us the tactics and effects through which power works and circulates (Hall, 1997: 50).
Both this notion of reality as a cultural construction and the working of power are what makes Foucault’s notion of discourse significant for my analysis. I will use a discourse approach to representation, which means that I will research the way women are represented in the selected Walt Disney animated features mainly by a discourse-analytical textual analysis. This approach will serve my goal of researching the way femininity is represented and constructed. MacDonald’s Exploring Media Discourse will serve as the paradigm for my study, in the way it reinterprets, for media research, Michel Foucault’s influential notion of discourse. To elaborate a discursive analysis of Disney’s films, I will observe some specific aspects of the films as ‘signs’. Namely, I will focus on appearance of the characters, the narrative and the cinematography, as through these the various relevant discursive power relations are, to my estimation, clearly visible.
Semiotics
The term semiotics refers to the general approach to the study of signs in culture and of culture as a sort of ‘language’. This term was introduced by Ferdinand de Saussure in the study of linguistics. “The underlying argument behind the semiotic approach is that, since all cultural objects convey meaning, and all cultural practices depend on meaning, they must make use of signs” (Hall, 1997: 36). For Saussure the production of meaning depends on language: “Language is a system of signs” (Hall, 1997: 31). Things such as sounds, images, objects and words function as signs within a language: “only when they serve to express or communicate ideas…[To] communicate ideas, they must be part of a system of conventions…” (Hall, 1997: 31).
Saussure goes on to state that things are defined in relation to the other, accordingly the marking of difference is fundamental to the production of meaning (Hall, 1997: 31). A good example is MAN and WOMAN. What signifies is not MAN or the essence of ‘man-ness’, but the difference between MAN and WOMAN. According to Saussure “signs are members of a system and are defined in relation to other members of that system” (Saussure in Hall, 1997: 31).
Therefore, considering an understanding of signs as explained by Ferdinand de Saussure, I will analyze the appearance of the characters: body types, color schemes/contrasts and clothing. For example, the clothes characters wear have a simple physical function of covering the body, but they also double up as signs. They construct a meaning and carry a message. The clothes themselves are the signifiers. (Hall, 1997: 36)
Analyzing the Disney films in this manner will give me two general clues about the discursive reality of the movies: what are the general characteristics of those referred to as ‘fair’ or ‘beautiful’? What ideal-type is created?
Femininity
As already noted above, media representations at the same time represent and construct their subject; the focus of this analysis is how femininity is constructed by Disney‘s animated features. By the realization of gender roles in texts, both categories of male and female are being inserted into the interplay of power in a specific manner; it ‘defines’ so to speak not only that which is normal, but also what is deviant. What I am researching here is the placement of femininity in Disney’s discourse, what it defines as the reality behind this concept (but by doing so it essentially constructs it): what is normal in the Disney universe.
To be able to tangibly reference Disney’s femininity-ideals, I will primarily contrast it to the notion of gender and femininity as described by Simone de Beauvoir. De Beauvoir explores the distinction made between men and women and states “On ne nait pas femme, on le deviant” (van der Tuin in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 15), which indicates that femininity (and masculinity) is constructed. She explains how these constructed gender differences are set in a hierarchical opposition where women are second class citizens in relation to men: women are “the second sex” (van der Tuin in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 15). Accordingly, the masculine principle is the norm, and phenomenon such as being active, the self and culture are assigned to man. The woman, on the other hand, is put in the role of Other and is associated to passivity and nature. Women and men are thus in a binary opposition, de Beauvoir illustrates that alongside the binary opposition man/woman, there are many concepts which are gendered. A good example is that working outside of the home is seen as a male activity, while the role of caretaker is assigned to women (van der Tuin in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 22). Ann Oakley supports this idea and explains how the construction of gender in Western cultures is at play. She states that gender differences in Western society are enhanced and exaggerated in order to uphold women’s role as housewives and mothers (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 56). In my research I will use this notion and analyze whether these gendered binary roles are visible in the Walt Disney animated features. It is my intention to analyze how femininity is represented in the Disney movies, what roles are assigned to women and what kind of behavior is rewarded.
Cinematography
To analyze the cinematographic aspects of these films, I will use Laura Mulvey’s concept of voyeurism in cinema and of the camera as bearer of the male gaze. The specific act of looking in film is called scopophilia. Mulvey explains how the male and female genders are put into gendered subject positions, which therefore have two sides: an active male gaze which looks and a female passivity which is looked at. The male is presented as an active subject, whereas the female is a passive one. Accordingly, men act/look and women appear/are observed (Smelik in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 189).
The male character looks at the female character, while the camera films from the male point of view. The viewer of the film thus sees everything from the male’s perspective, ensuring a triple male gaze: male character, camera and the viewer. Therefore, the female character is often represented as fragmented. In Mulvey’s analysis it is important to note that the tools which are used in film, such as arrangement, narrative and music, are used to objectify the female body while turning it into a passive spectacle to look at: to-be-looked-at-ness (Smelik in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 189). Thus, I will use the concept of the gaze to analyze how the female protagonist in the Disney features is framed into a passive pretty picture, while the male character looks and acts.
Even though the female characters in the Walt Disney animated features are drawings, while Mulvey uses the theory on real life women (and fiction/Hollywood narrative cinema), I believe her theory to be nonetheless valuable in analyzing how the female characters are looked at and what kind of femininity is created in Walt Disney animated features. Although the female characters are animations, they still represent women. Therefore, the female (animated) protagonist is put into the position of passive subject and serves as bearer of the active (animated) male gaze. Therefore, in my opinion, Mulvey’s theory regarding the gaze is relevant for my research.
Following Mulvey, I will analyze whether the movies in my corpus utilize this gaze in framing the female protagonist, and if so, whether this gaze changes in the different films, and whether there is a connection between these changes and the year of production. I will focus on the body of the female protagonist as object of the gaze.

Corpus
This Disney universe consists of a vast body of texts which must be both categorized and limited for reasons of lucidity and practicality. I will analyze three Disney movies from different ages to see the differences in their representation of femininity throughout the years.
The first film I will analyze is SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, which was produced in 1937. This feature shows the representation of a passive, ‘charming’ and ‘pure’ young woman. I will also briefly draw on observations of CINDERELLA (1950) and SLEEPING BEAUTY (1959) to further elaborate on how the feminine ideal is represented in the 1950s and who are the female characters who contrast it.
Also in the 1960s and 1970s Walt Disney film were released, but I won’t explore them in depth since I argue that these features present a continuation of the 1950s imaginary.
There are little to no relevant changes in the representation of femininity.
In the 1980s and 90s the female protagonists were designed to be wilder, more intelligent and more impudent. THE LITTLE MERMAID (1989) stars Ariel, who shows ‘new’ features in her assertiveness and independence, but embodies submissive characteristics as well. I will compare certain elements of THE LITTLE MERMAID to BEAUTY AND THE BEAST (1991) who’s heroine, Belle, was promoted by Walt Disney as ‘modern’, ‘active’ and even ‘feminist’. I will study whether Ariel (and Belle) really is more independent, or if these traits are just restricted to a certain part of the film. Finally, I shall analyze THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG (2009). This animated feature presents the first black Princess in Walt Disney history. To end, I shall compare my results and analyze whether the stereotypical image of femininity has changed, specifically what elements have been altered and which have remained the
same.
While analyzing these three Walt Disney animated features I will not only take the construction of femininity into account, I will also briefly draw on the representation of ethnicity. The representation of ethnicity and gender always interact with each other, they are intersected. When studying phenomenon with an intersectional approach, one looks at all of the axes of signification and analyzes how these axes are always interwoven while constantly influencing each other: “…Thinking in multiple axes of social and symbolic signification simultaneously enable us to see and understand more than if we would use one instrument – gender or ethnicity – of analysis” (Wekker, 2002: 5). Because an intersectional approach will give a broader understanding of how femininity and ethnicity are represented in the features, it is important to study how the two relate.
The Research SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS (1937)
SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS tells the story of a beautiful young maiden who is a slave to her wicked stepmother, the Queen. The jealous Queen fears that Snow White’s beauty will someday surpass her own. One morning, while Snow White is cleaning, she meets a handsome Prince, and they fall in love. Meanwhile, the evil Queen finds out that the day has come that Snow White’s beauty has surpassed hers. She wants Snow White to be killed, which forces Snow White to flee. She takes refuge with the seven dwarfs, during which she waits for her Prince to come.
The protagonist Snow White is a ‘beautiful’, ‘innocent’ maiden. The magic mirror describes Snow White as “the fairest one of all”. He tells the evil Queen:
Famed is thy beauty, majesty. Behold, a lovely maid I see. Rags cannot hide her gentle grace. Alas, she is more fair than thee. […]Lips red as the rose. Hair black as ebony. Skin white as snow.
Her voice is ‘soft’ and ‘harmonious’. This is illustrated in her constant singing about her wish that one day her Prince will come. Also her body type meets the standard of the Western feminine beauty ideal: she has the perfect wasp waist, her hands are soft and petit, as are her feet. The dress she wears accentuates her tiny figure. The top of her gown is blue, which stresses Snow White’s innocence and virtue since it echoes the blue robes of the Virgin Mary (Orenstein, 2011, 35-36). I will elaborate on this later in the research. Furthermore, Snow White moves in a graceful manner: when she walks it is almost as if she is floating on clouds while softly swaying her arms back and forth.
Her appearance thus seems to be ‘perfect’, as is her behavior. First, her innocence and naive nature are exemplified in her name of course Snow White, but also in the fact that she trusts and believes everyone. Even though she knows that the evil Queen wants to kill her and the seven dwarfs warn her, she trusts the old peddler woman (the Queen in disguise) and allows her to enter the cottage. When the peddler woman/witch tells her she must take a bite from the apple since it is a wishing apple that will make all her dreams come true, she immediately believes her and does as she is told, she does not think for herself. Virginia Woolf, in her text Professions for Women, describes (and criticizes) how this is one of the characteristics of a ‘perfect’ lady: “she was so constituted that she never had a mind or a wish of her own, but preferred to sympathize always with the minds and wishes of others” (Woolf, 2009).
Furthermore, SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS reinforces the domestic division of labor. This refers to the arrangement between men and women regarding the responsibility and tasks concerning the maintenance of a home. The domestic division of labor is often referred to as the gendered or sexual division of labor, which entails that men are responsible for the financial provisions of the family household, while women do the housework such as cleaning, cooking and caring (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 30-31).
It is understandable, given the context and time period, that Snow White is put in the role of caretaker: she is represented as a ‘perfect little housewife’ who cares for everyone, while loving every minute of it. When she first sees the cottage of the seven dwarfs, which is presented to her by the woodland animals, she is appalled by the state it is in. She cannot believe it is so filthy and wonders why these “little children” (still unaware that seven dwarfs live in the cottage) have not been reprimanded by their mother: “Why, you’d think their mother would….” Then she reconsiders and exclaims: “Maybe they have no mother!” whereupon she blissfully takes on the ‘female’ task of cleaning the house with the help of the forest animals. She does not mind doing all this; she is very happy and pleased to take on these tasks. While dancing and singing she makes cleaning, cooking and homemaking an enjoyable activity. By presenting the housework as an activity where one sings and dances, the stereotypical image of keeping house is reinforced, thus indicating that it is not ‘real’ work.
Moreover, the woodland animals helping Snow White find the cottage in which she can take refuge, and their assistance in cleaning the house is an interesting concept. As explained, men and women are in a binary opposition, where phenomenon such as the self and culture are assigned to man, whereas concepts such as nature and the other are assigned to woman (van der Tuin in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 22). By portraying Snow White as in need of assistance from the woodland animals and considering her friendship with them, the stereotypical image of women being closer to nature and women as the historical other is reinforced and upheld. This is not only portrayed in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, it is a recurring theme in CINDERELLA, where the mice and birds help her with the chores, and in SLEEPING BEAUTY where Aurora befriends the woodland animals with whom she spends her time and shares her secrets.
Furthermore, the song she constantly sings “I’m wishing, for the man I love, to find me today” illustrates her mission to meet her Prince. John Stuart Mill already explained in 1859 how marriage was expected to be women’s main focus in life, but in my opinion this notion is still applicable in modern day society (Mill, 1859 ). Diane Richardson supports this notion and explains how heterosexuality acts to socialize women into the social institutions that entail marriage and family (Richardson in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 70).
To meet the Prince she loves is Snow White's dream and greatest desire in life, marriage is the destination appointed to her.
Throughout the film it becomes apparent that Snow White only has one thing on her mind: being found by her Prince and marrying him. A scene which illustrates this desire is when the evil Queen/witch gives Snow White the poisonous apple and tells her it is a wishing apple that will make all her dreams come true. Snow White takes the apple and pronounces her deepest desire: “I wish, I wish......and that he will carry me away to his castle where we will live happily ever after.” She has no agency in doing this though; she waits until the man she loves to find her. It seems as if the message that is being sent out is: the only thing for a ‘good girl’ to do is to take care of others, clean and find a husband. This is a recurring theme in Walt Disney animated features, especially in the older features, exemplified by CINDERELLA and SLEEPING BEAUTY, where the Princesses wait by to be swept off their feet. But also in the more modern films such as THE LITTLE MERMAID, it is the protagonist’s wish to marry the man she loves. Even in the features BEAUTY AND THE BEAST and THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG where the female protagonists want nothing to do with a man at the beginning of the film, they eventually conform to the standard by marrying Prince Charming. One gets the impression that getting married is the only desire a women could have. This desire seems to be
imposed by society, since it is represented as the only desire available for women (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 70-71).
Snow White thus exemplifies the mainstream Western dominant feminine ideal in that she is a submissive caretaker who is subjected to others. She equates being happy to being married which will give her the ‘happy ending’ she always dreams of. Therefore, SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS does not only present an image of normative femininity, it also reinforces normative heterosexuality where marriage is of importance as a discursive and normalizing institution. As I stated above, marriage was (and I think it still is) a destination appointed to women by society. Carole Pateman takes this a step further in The Sexual Contract where she explains that marriage is a contract which is thought to produce a high(er) moral in society. Moreover, it is presented as the best (and only) option for women (Pateman, 1988: 157-158). Accordingly, heterosexuality is the norm: “the marriage contract cannot be entered into by any two (or more) sane adults, but is restricted to two parties, one of whom must be a man and the other a woman” (Pateman, 1988: 167). Carol Smart further explains how heterosexual identity “entails an effortless superiority” (Smart in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 70). Since it entails this effortless superiority, it is assumed to be the norm of a certain kind of life style while being morally and materially endorsed in the discourses of public life (Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 71).
In the Walt Disney animated features, marriage and heteronormativity are recurring themes. Not only do they occur in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, the Disney oeuvre presents countless tales where the Prince and Princess live ‘happily ever after’ upholding the ideal of marriage as destination for women.
Snow White is not the only female character in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS: the evil Queen portrays a different type of femininity. The evil Queen has been ‘the fairest one of all’ for a long time, until Snow White’s beauty surpassed hers. Her beauty however is very different from Snow White’s. Snow White’s beauty seems to be ‘natural’, like her ‘naturally’ harmonious nature. The Queen however, has a vengeful and jealous nature, which seemingly influences her appearance. The evil Queen has fair skin, with rosy cheeks, but the cheeks are made rosy with blush. Her lips are red as rubies, but this is done with lipstick. Her eyes are big and green, but they do not give her an innocent look, on the contrary, she wears lots of violet and grey eye shadow, which gives her a hardened look. Her fingernails are long, as if she is going to scratch you. Her clothes and the green eyes show that the colors green and violet are colors which are used to create a dark, wicked atmosphere in Disney movies. Also her voice is shrill and dark. Her character is vicious and vengeful; the murderous actions taken by the evil Queen give the impression that women are jealous and fickle and that they will go to great lengths to maintain and acquire beauty and power (Baker-Sperry, Grauerholz, 2003: 719).
At the same time the evil Queen portrays the wicked witch as well. The witch has a stereotypical appearance: she is small and hunchbacked. She has very sharp features: a pointy chin, a big long crooked nose with a wart on top and she only has one tooth. Her hands are bony and her fingernails are long, crooked and yellow. The witch is accompanied by a raven, which connotes to death, misery and loss. It is not surprising that the evil Queen transforms into an old, ugly witch. In the Disney universe, inner beauty seems to result in a ‘beautiful’ physique. Since the evil Queen is portrayed as ugly and distorted on the inside, the viewer can only wait for the transformation to be complete, thus turning the Queen into a disfigured old witch.
SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS thus presents two types of femininity: the good and the bad. It places femininity in a binary classificatory system one might say. Richard Dyer argues that people use types to make sense of the world: “We understand the world by referring individual objects, people or events in our heads to the general classificatory schemes into which- according to our culture- they fit” (Dyer in Hall, 1997: 257). According to Dyer, one is always making sense of things in terms of wider categories. You can ‘know’ something about a person by analyzing what kind of roles the person takes on (child/parent), by focusing on one’s personality type or by defining them to the membership of a specific group such as gender, ethnicity and/ or class. The image one gets from a person is thus constructed through the information we receive from positioning him/her in these typifications (Hall, 1997: 257). Dyer states that “a type is any simple, vivid, memorable, easily grasped and widely recognized characterization in which a few traits are foregrounded and change or ‘development’ is kept to a minimum” (Dyer in Hall, 1997: 257).
A type can easily become a stereotype: “Stereotypes get hold of the few ‘simple, vivid, memorable, easily grasped and widely recognized’ characteristics about a person, reduce everything about the person to those traits, exaggerate and simplify them, and fix them without change or development to eternity” (Hall, 1997: 258). Secondly, stereotyping divides the normal from the abnormal, it splits so to say. What does not fit in is excluded. According to Dyer “a system of social and stereo-types refers to what is, as it were, within and beyond the pale of normalcy” (Dyer in Hall, 1997: 258). Thus, stereotypes fix boundaries, they define what is normal and what is deviant.
While analyzing the (stereo)types of femininity which are represented in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS one might say that different kinds of femininity have been positioned as stereotypical binary oppositions. By presenting different types of femininity as binary oppositions, difference is being over simplified: “swallowing up all distinctions in their rather rigid two part structure” (Hall, 1997: 235). It has become clear that Snow White represents the normal; she is the ‘kind’ and ‘good’ maiden, her kindness seems to result in her ‘beauty’ as if her ‘gorgeous’ inside shows on the outside. She is submissive and passive, while always taking care of others. Snow White fits Woolf’s description of what was thought to be the ‘perfect’ lady:
She was intensely sympathetic. She was immensely charming. She was utterly unselfish. She excelled in the difficult arts of family life. She sacrificed herself daily. If there was chicken, she took the leg; if there was a draught she sat in it—in short she was so constituted that she never had a mind or a wish of her own, but preferred to sympathize always with the minds and wishes of others. Above all—I need not say it—–she was pure. Her purity was supposed to be her chief beauty—her blushes, her great grace.
(Woolf, 2009)
The fact that Snow White marries the Prince and lives happily ever after (or so we are told) only further stretches the idea that Snow White fits into the normal. The Queen however does not match the image of a passive, submissive and gentle lady. She does not wait for others to take the lead; she makes her own wishes come true. She goes against the image of a passive woman. In doing so, the evil Queen does not fit into the norms as described by society, she is excluded as ‘other’ (Hall, 1997: 259). It seems as if Walt Disney is trying to say: “Conform to the norm, or strike out”. Snow White lives happily ever after while the Queen dies of ‘falling’ (being chased) off a cliff.
Last, when you look at Snow White from the point of the gaze, it is very clear that Snow White is constantly being framed and looked at. In the article Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema, Mulvey explains how women are constantly being silenced. Throughout SNOW WHITE AND THE SVEN DWARFS it is apparent that Snow White is a passive bystander, she does nothing and lets others take the lead. Mulvey describes this as: “silent image of woman still tied to her place as bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning” (Mulvey, 1975: 59). Around Snow White there are a lot of things taking place, but Snow White takes no part in this. She serves as a pretty picture, while others take the lead. In this interplay of looking and being looked at, the viewer always takes upon the position of the male, gazing at the female. The issue of the gaze is very noticeable in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, but there is one scene in particular which illustrates it very well. This is the last scene where the viewer sees Snow White laying in the glass coffin. The camera, as well as the viewer, zooms out a bit and the viewer sees that they are gazing upon Snow White as if they were one of the seven dwarfs looking at Snow White. After this, the camera zooms out a bit more, the viewer sees Snow White in the middle of the frame with the seven dwarfs and the forest animals all kneeling beside her while a ray of light illuminates Snow White. The viewer knows that this is the image that the Prince sees since the camera, and the viewer, shifts to him while he serenades her and walks/floats down to see Snow White. The image shifts to Snow White again and the viewer takes upon the gaze of the Prince while walking towards Snow White to give her “love’s first kiss”. In this constant game of being looked-at-ness, Snow White is literally being framed as a pretty picture. She holds the look of the man and signifies male desire.
In sum, considering the various aspects I have analyzed, it can be stated that Snow White undoubtedly constructs and represents a normative, stereotypical and patriarchal Western ideal of femininity. I shall now move on to the analysis of a feature which was made 50 years later: THE LITTLE MERMAID.

THE LITTLE MERMAID (1989)
THE LITTLE MERMAID breaks with some of the old elements used to create the feminine ideal and introduces new features. Accordingly, it differs in certain areas from the previously analyzed movie. THE LITTLE MERMAID tells the story of Ariel, a sixteen year old mermaid. She is a rebellious and adventurous young woman who yearns to know more of the human world. When she falls in love with the human Prince Eric, she strikes a deal with the evil sea witch: she trades her voice for legs. If Prince Eric falls in love with her in three days, she will stay human forever. If Ariel does not manage to win over Eric’s heart, she must give up her soul to Ursula for all eternity.
As I stated earlier, in the 1980s and 90s the female protagonists of the Walt Disney animated features were designed to be wilder and more intelligent. That was the period right after the social, political and rights movements of the 1960s and 70s where women had been fighting against issues such as ‘unofficial’ inequalities, the sexual norm, power relations in the work place and the idea that women were only suited to be devoted wives and mothers. As Betty Friedan states in The Feminine Mystique, women were asking themselves “Is this all?” (Friedan, 2001). It seems as if Walt Disney made an effort to incorporate what women had been fighting for by presenting the Disney Princesses as adventurous and yearning for knowledge.
THE LITTLE MERMAID has thus been modernized as reflected in the ‘new’ heroine. In appearance alone, the viewer can see some differences. The female protagonist has red hair which gives her a fierce glow. Also Ariel’s behavior differs from her predecessor’s. She is a sensual, aggressive, adventurous teenager, in contrast to Snow White, who is shy, obedient, naïve, innocent and motherly (Wasko, 2001: 134). On top of that, Ariel’s dream man no longer resembles an angel-like character: Prince Eric is muscular, nonchalant and ‘cool’. Apart from the differences, there are however some similarities in the fact that both Ariel and Snow White are surrounded by male characters (who must always come to the rescue) and they are unhappy with their lives and dream of marrying a prince (Wasko, 2001: 134). So, is it all an eternal return of the same or has Walt Disney really made an effort to alter the submissive female protagonist?
To elaborate on the differences and similarities I shall first point out resemblances to Snow White concerning appearance. The female protagonist is again ‘the most beautiful’ of all. Similarities are obviously noticeable in Ariel’s body type: Ariel has big eyes, long flowing hair (although it is red), harmonically petite features and an extremely thin waist.
At first glance Ariel’s behavior seems to differ from Snow White’s. Ariel is presented as an adventurous young woman who dives into dangerous situations. She is disobedient towards her father and is constantly going against the rules. It appears as if Ariel has ‘killed the angel in the house’ (Woolf, 2009) while taking the lead herself. According to Rosi Braidotti these are traits which should be rewarded. She talks about women who should take action, resist patriarchies and take charge of their own lives: “In a patriarchal culture which rewards submission, disloyalty and disobedience can be positive and empowering attributes for women. Feminism is in some respects a movement of disobedient daughters” (Braidotti in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007: 251, own translation ). Ariel shows elements of this disobedient daughter, but can she keep it up?
Another character trait which is different from Snow White is Ariel’s hunger for knowledge (about the human world). She constantly goes on treasure hunts to search for human artefacts which she collects in her secret cave. She yearns to know more about humans and their way of life. This is illustrated in the song Part Of Your World where she states: “And I’m ready to know what the people know; Ask 'em my questions and get some answers” which indicates that she wants to learn. This is also illustrated in BEAUTY AND THE BEAST where Belle is constantly reading books to gain knowledge since she wants “more than this provincial life”. It is thus suffice to say that the heroines in the 1980s and 90s are eager for knowledge. They are no longer the passive perfect lady who “was so constituted that she never had a mind or a wish of her own, but preferred to sympathize always with the minds and wishes of others” (Woolf, 2009) exemplified by Snow White. Considering the fact that both THE LITTLE MERMAID and BEAUTY AND THE BEAST came out right after the women’s movement of the 1960s, 70s and 80s, where women’s education was a big issue, it is understandable that Disney created heroines who value knowledge. Ariel and Belle (try to) embody the idea, proclaimed by Adrienne Rich in her speech Claiming Education, that women must “demand to be taken seriously” and that “it is our shared commitment toward a world in which the inborn potentialities of so many women’s minds will no longer be wasted, raveled- away, paralyzed or denied” (Rich, 1977, ). Thus, by presenting these two protagonists as wanting to gain knowledge while rejecting the passive traits of Snow White, who lets others around her take the lead while waiting by until her Prince comes to the rescue, Disney seemingly tries to do away with what Rich explains as “the forces in society which say that women should be nice, play safe, have low professional expectations, drown in love and forget about work, live through others, and stay in the places assigned to us “ (Rich, 1977, ). But have Ariel and Belle really rejected these expectations? Of course they state that they want to learn, but when it really comes down to it, do they take responsibility and use their own brains while refusing to let others do the thinking and talking?
Sadly, Ariel does not. Ariel starts to lose her independent, adventurous, hungry for knowledge character after she disobeys her father and goes to the surface of the ocean. Here she sees Prince Eric on his ship. When a storm breaks out, Eric almost drowns, but Ariel comes to the rescue and takes him to land. Subsequently, all her actions are guided by a need to find Prince Eric, get him to fall in love with her and marry so she will live ‘happily ever after’. The ideal, as exemplified in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, of marriage as the destination for women is thus reinforced by Ariel in THE LITTLE MERMAID. In Ariel’s mission to real in Prince Eric she strikes a deal with Ursula, the evil sea witch, where she gives up her voice for a pair of legs. On the one hand this act shows that Ariel takes charge and has agency: she pursues what she wants. Making a deal with Ursula is a sign of Ariel’s independence and adventurous nature, since it shows that she is not afraid to take a risk; she knows what she wants and goes after it. She takes charge herself and does not wait around for others to take the lead. Then again, this act of agency, is also her last. After giving up her voice, she must rely on Flounder and Sebastian (her male sidekicks) in the human world. Ariel knows nothing of this world, has no voice anymore and is therefore portrayed as a helpless dame in need of others. Where Ariel was so inquisitive and independent in the sea world, she is equally oblivious and dependent in the human world. Disney’s initial goal to design the female protagonist as bold and independent thus seems to disappear halfway through the feature. So are we back to submissive Snow White? It seems as if Ariel embraces her as a role model and we are back at square one.
By giving up her voice and subsequently succeeding in getting Eric to fall in love with her, the idea that “the intelligent woman who denies her intelligence in order to seem more ‘feminine’, or who sits in passive silence even when she disagrees inwardly with everything being said around her” (Rich, 1977) is upheld and validated by Walt Disney.
The education of women has been a matter of debate for centuries (Rich 1977) and the ‘loss of femininity’ has often been blamed on education, independence and equality with men (Friedan, 2001). It seems as if Disney is supporting this idea in THE LITTLE MERMAID by designing Ariel as an independent inquisitive young woman at the beginning of the feature while turning her into a helpless, voiceless damsel in distress in need of a male hero halfway through. This is especially noticeable in the scene where Ursula becomes the ruler of the sea (for approximately three minutes) whereupon Eric kills her. In this scene Ariel is deprived from any sign of strength which she did have at the beginning of the film. She is a helpless spectator at the bottom of the ocean while Eric takes the lead. In this scene Ariel literally embodies the notion of “silent image of woman” (Mulvey, 1975). She is the driving force of the plot, but a passive one. Ariel is thus reduced to the position of the second sex while taking on the role of passive, submissive, perfect lady.
Ariel’s transformation from an independent, autonomous woman to a submissive, passive damsel in distress is interesting. It is only when this transformation is complete that she is fully accepted by her father and family, she gets the guy and lives ‘happily ever after’. Accordingly, marriage is portrayed as the cherry on the cake- it is the final step in Ariel’s ‘upgrade’ while once again, heterosexuality is normative. As Richardson states, “heterosexuality infuses the social realm; it represents the idea of normal behavior which is central to the concept of the social and the process of socialization into the social realm” (Richardson in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 68-69). Rich further explains how heterosexuality carries the assurance of normality: unless a person ‘comes out’, they are assumed to be heterosexual. In this way, heterosexuality, with marriage as its successor, is a normalizing institution (Rich in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 69). She further implies that through things such as romance narratives in literature and film the institution of heterosexuality, followed by marriage, promises a happy ending to those who conform, while those who do not are awaited by punishment (Rich in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 69). By portraying Ariel as a proper lady only after she is silenced and is wed to Prince Eric, it is implied that heterosexuality and marriage are in fact normalizing. As if only after this event Ariel deserves her happily ever after. At the same time it is important to keep in mind that Ursula , who did not conform, was in fact punished with death. Janet Wasko’s interpretation of women’s position in society as represented by THE LITTLE MERMAID seems very fitting: “women can achieve access and mobility in the white male system if they remain silent” (Wasko, 2001: 136). Even though Disney claimed to have designed the female protagonist as independent and inquisitive, once again normative femininity and normative heterosexuality are validated and reinforced.
Similar to SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, THE LITTLE MERMAID also presents two types of femininity. Just like the evil Queen, Ursula is the exact opposite of Ariel: she is sharp and has harsh features, her face is drawn with deep lines. She wears heavy make-up which is dark and hard. The colors green and violet represent evil. Also her voice is dark and shrill. Last, she lives in a cave with dark corners and lots of shadow which makes her look even scarier.
There is however a difference between Ursula and the Evil Queen: Ursula is big and fat whereas the evil women before her had a ‘normal’ body type. It looks like there has been a shift in the portrayal of evil women. Wasko states that this is because the difference between ‘good’ and ‘evil’ is even more noticeable when the two oppositions are presented as binary poles in every aspect: “The movie’s portrayal of good as fairer and thinner is even more contrasted when evil presents a bigoted distortion of the human body” (Wasko, 2001: 135).
THE LITTLE MERMAID treads in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS’ footsteps by creating two types of femininity which place femininity in a binary classificatory system. Accordingly, the different kinds of femininity are again stereotyped by oversimplifying and exaggerating certain traits. This divides the normal from the abnormal (Dyer in Hall, 1997: 257-258). It is apparent that Ariel represents the normal after she has been ‘saved’ by marriage of course, which has turned her into a ‘proper’ lady. Marriage is portrayed as Ariel’s redemption from her adventurous, inquisitive- ‘unfeminine’ character and is presented as the ‘normalizing factor’ which allows her to enter the domain of a lady-like Princess. She now too fits into the field of perfect lady since already “She was intensely sympathetic. She was immensely charming. She was utterly unselfish” (Woolf, 2009). Ursula, on the other hand, is the deviation to the norm, she embodies the abnormal. Ursula is not passive, she is not submissive and she is certainly not gentle. She is active, thus taking on the ‘role of a man’ (de Beauvoir in Buikema and van der Tuin, 2007,:15), which is not accepted in the Disney universe, nor does it coincide with the norms as described by society. Therefore, following in the evil Queen’s footsteps, Ursula too is excluded as ‘other’ (Hall, 1997: 259).
Moving to the last aspect of my analysis, I shall look at the use of the gaze in THE LITTLE MERMAID. Like with the other elements in the movie, there are similarities and differences between this film and the film previously studied. Ariel is the object of the gaze throughout the majority of the film. A good example of this is when she is in her secret cave, admiring the statue of Prince Eric. The spectator follows the gaze of King Triton and Sebastian, though unaware of this since neither the viewer nor Ariel sees them. Because of this, the gaze is enhanced. Mulvey explains that when the gaze is hidden from the observed, the pleasure of looking (scopophilia) brings about the most extreme form of voyeurism (Mulvey, 1975: 60-61). There is however a scene where Ariel is the one who is looking, turning Prince Eric into the object of her gaze. In this way the sexual imbalance where pleasure has been split between active/male and passive/female, as Mulvey describes, is being contested (Mulvey, 1975: 62-63). When Ariel goes to the surface of the ocean, she sees Eric on his boat, she watches him sing and dance while he does not see her. The viewer takes upon the gaze of Ariel, seeing Prince Eric through the eyes of Ariel. The traditional role of women being looked at and displayed to connote to-be-looked-at-ness is thus turned around (Mulvey, 1975: 62-63).
This signifies a change in the discursive construction of femininity through cinematographic means. It seems as if this is a structural change in the Disney oeuvre, since BEAUTY AND THE BEAST shows similar discursive changes regarding the use of the gaze. It will be interesting to see whether this alteration is restricted to the late 1980s and the beginning of the 90s, or if it reoccurs in THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG.
Like I said, there are many similarities between Ariel and Belle. They both are represented as independent women who yearn for knowledge and want to break out of the before-set life plan, but eventually conform to it: Ariel and Belle both marry the beautiful Prince, become ‘perfect’ ladies and live happily ever after. One can only wonder while watching Walt Disney features: Is the dream of independence an unattainable, futile myth, or is marrying the Prince itself the ‘adventurous’ life an independent woman dreams of? According to Disney apparently it is. There is however one significant change between these two features: the evil female villain seems to have disappeared. In BEAUTY AND THE BEAST the villain is a man, Gaston, which may indicate a change in the representation of different types of femininity represented as binary poles. Is there a possibility that Disney actually took the critique on gender roles somewhat seriously? Or is BEAUTY AND THE BEAST just an exception to the rule? In the analysis of THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG I will observe if a discursive shift has really taken place, or if Disney has fallen back again into the stereotypes and clichés?

THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG (2009)
This Walt Disney animated feature differs significantly from the others since it represents the first black protagonist. THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG tells the story of Tiana, a beautiful young woman who works very hard to save money and fulfill her late father’s dream of one day owning their own restaurant. When Prince Naveen comes to town to find a rich girl to marry, he comes into contact with the evil Shadowman, the voodoo doctor. Naveen falls for Shadowman’s tricks, but is fooled and becomes a frog. Tiana suffers the same fate while trying to uplift the spell by kissing Prince Naveen. The two escape to the bayou where search for Mama Odie who can undo Shadowman’s magic.
Focusing on the appearance of the characters, Tiana is without a doubt the ‘fair’ maiden. She has big (brown) eyes, a small waist, soft lips and petit features. But since she is a frog for the greater part of the movie this is hardly seen. I must say though, even when she is a frog Walt Disney has given her a stereotypical ‘feminine’ appearance. As a frog Tiana has big eyes with long lashes, she has a small waist and harmonious features (as odd as that may sound).
An interesting phenomenon in THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG, in comparison to the other analyzed features, is the representation of ethnicity and class. Where the white Princesses are of royalty or nobility, Tiana comes from a ‘simple’ working class background. I will further elaborate on this distinction later, where I will analyze how ethnicity intersects in the portrayal of gender and class.
As I said, Tiana works incredibly hard to fulfill her dream, therefore the people around her consider her to be stiff. Her friends say she is an oddity, fore she only works and has no time for other activities. Tiana works in a restaurant and to earn as much money as possible she serves to her boss’ and customer’s every command. The customers and restaurant owner believe Tiana will never achieve her goal. They ridicule her and see her as a hardworking, faithful and loyal servant. In this way she is put into the role of the modern Mammy. At the same time she functions as a black lady.
Patricia Hill Collins explains how images of working class black femininity echo stereotypes regarding black women’s ‘bitchyness’ and ‘promiscuity’. These images are associated with poor and working class black women and present what not to be. Black women must therefore find a way out of the “working class traps” and become what she calls “Black ladies”. Collins states:
Images of middle-class Black femininity demonstrate a cumbersome and often contradictory link between that of modern mammy and Black lady. The Black lady image is designed to counter claims of Black women’s promiscuity. Achieving middle-class status means that Black women have rejected the unbridled ‘freaky’ sexuality now attributed primarily to working-class Black women. At the same time, because middle-class Black women typically need to work in order to remain middle class, they cannot achieve the status of lady by withdrawing from the workforce. Images of the Black lady are designed to resolve these contradictions.
(Collins, 2004: 139, original emphasis)
Collins elaborates further stressing that the Black lady is an invented category, designed to break out of the stereotypes. The new Black lady uses standard American English and always has a dignified demeanor. Traditional American values and family are of importance to her (Collins, 2004: 139).
As stated, middle class black women need to work to remain middle class. Collins describes how the image of mammy has been modernized as a model for middle class black women. (Collins, 2004: 140). The modern mammy constantly shows her utter devotion to the white household and has unquestioned subservience to her workplace (Hall, 1997: 251). While at the same time she finds a balance in being appropriately subordinate to white/male authority, yet maintaining a level of ambition needed to achieve middle class occupation (Collins, 2004: 140). The modern mammy is almost exclusively shown in the workplace. They are tough, smart, asexual and very independent, yet devoted to their jobs and (white) male bosses. Loyalty is a very important quality of the modern mammy (Collins, 2004: 140-141).
Tiana seems to be designed to fit this description of Black lady combined with modern mammy: Tiana is appropriately subordinate to authority, yet she maintains a level of ambition needed to achieve middle class occupation. She is aggressive, but it is carefully channeled. She is almost exclusively shown in the workplace. She uses standard American English and always has a dignified demeanor. Furthermore, she is tough, smart, independent and asexual. This last aspect is very noticeable when Prince Naveen comes to town. All the girls in New Orleans are seen drooling around Naveen and will do anything to catch a glimpse of him, while Tiana could not care less. She is presented as a woman who is not interested in men or relationships. She has nothing but work on her mind. Last, the traditional American values of family, faith and hard work are of great importance to Tiana. Family is extremely valuable to her, but this is barely noticeable since her family is hardly shown. However, Tiana is not portrayed in this manner for a very long time: she is human for approximately 20 minutes in the entire feature. She turns into an amphibian very early in the story. The first animated feature with a black protagonist is not even a black person throughout the majority of the film. Tiana is mostly seen hopping around the screen with her toady body and animal friends who guide her through a bayou. To me the hidden message of the film could be: “Yes, Tiana is a black Princess, but not really”. While Snow White had animal sidekicks to stress her relationship to Nature as a woman, Tiana, as a black woman, is represented as part of Nature.
By presenting Tiana as a frog the stereotypical connotations of black people being closer to nature are embraced.
Under colonialism, West African people’s proximity to wild animals, especially apes, raised in Western imaginations the specter of “wild” sexual practices in an uncivilized, inherently violent wilderness. Through colonial eyes, the stigma of biological Blackness and the seeming primitiveness of African Cultures marked the borders of extreme abnormality.
(Collins, 2004: 120)
Accordingly, the idea of blackness and primitiveness associated to the proximity of wild animals is being reinforced: “Identified with Nature, they symbolize ‘the primitive’ in contrast with ‘the civilized world’”(Hall, 1997: 239). The Enlightenment ranked societies against an evolutionary scale which represented the world from ‘barbarism’ to ‘civilization’. It was thought that Africa was “the parent of everything that is monstrous in Nature” (Edward Long in Hall, 1997: 239). The stereotypical image of black people being closer to nature is thus upheld in THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG. Tiana is not presented as a normal Walt Disney animated Princess. By turning her into a frog and accompanying her with a crazy Cajun firefly and a jazzy trumpet playing alligator there are clear connotations to African primitiveness. She does not fit into the original Disney Princess oeuvre; she is marked as an abnormality.
THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG has the same fairy tale ending as the previously analyzed animated features: the Prince and Princess are married and live happily ever after. It is only after Tiana and Prince Naveen are joined in holy matrimony that they turn back into humans. Through this marriage is again portrayed as a normalizing institution. Accordingly, after Tiana has married Prince Naveen, she is finally able to fulfill the dream of owning her own restaurant. In this way marriage is portrayed as something rewarding, it is indicated that it will make all your dreams come true. Tiana was not able to get the restaurant on her own by working day and night. Only after she conformed to the norm, she was able to fulfill her dream. In the Walt Disney universe marriage seems to mean the same as living happily ever after and getting everything you want. Tiana differs from the previously analyzed Princesses in the fact that she is active and she takes the lead in the story: she is determined and she gets the restaurant. This indicates that Disney may be taking a step forward in representing women as more active and independent. However, in the end, Tiana does conform to the norm, thus reinforcing the idea that marriage is the right thing for a proper lady. It is represented as the only destiny available to women.
As I stated earlier, the evil female villain seems to have disappeared from the Disney oeuvre after THE LITTLE MERMAID. The ‘bad guy’ in BEAUTY AND THE BEAST was in fact a guy: Gaston. While analyzing THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG , it has become apparent that BEAUTY AND THE BEAST is not an exception to the rule. This indicates that there has been a discursive shift in the representation of different types of femininity. The stereotypical representation of femininity in the binary opposition good/normal (Snow White and Ariel) versus bad/abnormal (Evil Queen and Ursula) has been replaced. A step in the good direction has been made, but what has filled the gap?
In THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG the evil villain is Shadowman, he is the black man of the tale who is a voodoo magician. Most of what people know of voodoo comes from incorrect sources such as popular television shows, the internet and subjective documentaries about ‘witch doctors’. In Western society voodoo is often portrayed as a devilish religion, it is considered to be a dangerous superstition and a magical practice, when actually it is a complex belief system that was carried by slaves, primarily to Haiti and Louisiana, where it became known in its new form as voodoo. It draws on African traditions from the faith of the indigenous Tainos, Catholicism and Islam. The foundation of voodoo is a monotheistic faith, belief in saints and spirits, and a focus on moral values. By presenting the villain as a bad voodoo magician, Walt Disney is once again embracing stereotypes regarding African culture. Eurocentrism is an illustrative concept of analysis in this case. Eurocentrism is a concept used to describe how everything European is naturalized as common sense: all that is European is represented as natural and just, while the rest is reduced to what is called primitive and barbaric. The idea that West is best is naturalized; you have the West and the rest. Eurocentrism envisions the world from a single privileged point, it centralizes Europe and belittles, even demonizes Africa (Shohat and Stam, 1994: 1-3). Thus, by presenting the villain as an evil voodoo magician who engages with demonic shadows and devil spirits, both the black man and the African religion are demonized. Black men are hence represented as evil and closer to nature, savage, wild and even demonic (Shohat and Stam, 1994: 1-3). bell hooks explains how black men are put in the role of animals, brutes and murderers. She states that “when race and class enter the picture, along with patriarchy, then black males endure the worst impositions of gendered masculine patriarchal identity. […] At the center of the way black male selfhood is constructed in white-supremacist capitalist patriarchy is the image of the brute- untamed, uncivilized, unthinking and unfeeling” (hooks, 2004: xii). Accordingly, negative stereotypes and images concerning black masculinities keep growing, while being white is represented as ‘supreme’.
Even though there is no female villain, there is another female character who represents a different type of femininity as opposed to Tiana. Mama Odie represents the fairy godmother of the tale, but she is presented as Mama Nature. Both her behavior and her appearance can be linked to her ethnicity. Mama Odie is the good voodoo priestess who lives in the bayou, amidst the flora and the fauna. She wears a koto (dress) and an angisa (headscarf), which are seen as ‘typical’ African clothing. She is a 197 years old, she is blind and she has a seeing eye snake. She lives in a messy house with many animals and ‘voodoo equipment’.
Mama Odie is represented in terms of sets of binary oppositions. Hall explains how people who are different from the majority are often “exposed to this binary form of representation” (Hall, 1997: 229).
They seem to be represented through sharply opposed, polarized, binary extremes- good/bad, civilized/primitive, ugly/excessively attractive, repelling because different/compelling-because-strange-and-exotic. And they are often requited to be both things at the same time.
(Hall, 1997: 229, original emphasis)
Mama Odie seems to fit this form of representation. She has a dumb and clownish slide: she lives in a messy house, stumbles over everything and uses her seeing eye snake without caution which makes her bump into her belongings, her memory often fails her and she is very chaotic. Her other side is very wise: she is the only one who has the power and the means to undo Shadowman’s spell, she gives Tiana and Prince Naveen advice about life and tries to enlighten them with her knowledge. She is both dumb and wise at the same time. Binary oppositions in this way capture Mama Odie in a very reductionist manner, she is either wise or dumb. In this way Mama Odie is reduced to an either/or extreme while at the same time she is oversimplified.
Furthermore, Mama Odie is represented as close to nature: she lives in the midst of the flora and fauna, she is the priestess of the animal kingdom and a good witch doctor. Wild animals such as alligators, snakes, flamenco’s and other creatures surround her. She is represented as queen of the natural kingdom. As I stated earlier, black people are often identified with nature. Hall explains how “Curvier dubbed the Negro race a ‘monkey tribe’” and “Hegel declared that Africa was no historical part of the world…. It has no movement or development to exhibit.” Africa was regarded as “marooned and historically abandoned… a fetish land, inhibited by cannibals, dervishes and witch doctors…”’ (Hall, 1997: 239). Mama Odie exemplifies these stereotypical images. She is literally seen as the parent of everything in nature by being named Mama Odie. She symbolizes primitiveness and is compared to wild animals. She is however not presented as evil, like Shadowman, but she is good. This indicates that Walt Disney is taking a step in the good direction regarding the representation of femininity.
Again, two types of femininity have been created. THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG may not have embraced the representation of good versus evil women, but it has nonetheless represented femininity in a binary classificatory system. Even though Mama Odie is not evil, her character does not match the norms of femininity as prescribed by society. Therefore, she is represented as a bit crazy. Her characteristics are exaggerated and oversimplified, which places her into the category of abnormal. Tiana, on the other hand, represents the normal and fits into the social norms of society. Disney has taken a (baby) step forward though: while the older female ‘others’ of the tale died, Mama Odie does not suffer this fate.
Finally, I have looked at the use of the gaze in THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG. A scene where Tiana as object of the gaze is very noticeable is the scene where she stands on a balcony, wishing upon the evening star. The viewer sees Tiana, with her eyes closed wishing for her restaurant. When Tiana looks to the side she, and the viewer, see that a frog has been looking at her, while the viewer realizes that they too have been gazing upon Tiana through the eyes of this frog. Tiana is startled and gasps. When she recomposes herself, she sarcastically says: “So… What now? I reckon you want to kiss?”, referring to the fairy tale The Princess and the Frog. When Prince Naveen responds, he states: “Kissing would be nice, yes…”. This is strongly reminiscent of Mulvey’s explanation of women being the object of desire: “In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness” (Mulvey, 1975: 62-63). The fact that Tiana is Naveen’s voyeuristic object is obvious since she is the object of his gaze. This is only further enforced when he states that kissing would be nice, clearly indicating that Tiana is the object of his desire. However, Tiana does not stay quiet, she looks back and she talks back. This indicates another baby step in the right direction.
It can be stated that THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG represents a normative Western ideal of femininity, while constructing a stereotypical image of black people. Disney has shown that they have taken a few minor steps towards the good direction, but it has not been (consistent) enough to create a better representation of gender and ethnicity.

Findings and Interpretation
There are several themes which I came across during the analyses of the films which deserve more attention.
It has become apparent that a character’s physical appearance is very crucial in Walt Disney animated features. This shows some interesting patterns. Women’s beauty is accentuated far more than men’s attractiveness. Moreover, beauty plays a greater role for younger women than for older ones, except when older women try to maintain the status of ‘fairest one of all’ as in SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 717). Discourse analysis uncovers various themes regarding beauty. There is a clear link between beauty and goodness, most often in relation to younger women, and between ugliness and evil, most often in relation to older women. In the Disney universe beauty is rewarded and lack of beauty is punished (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz: 718).
Even though beauty is often rewarded in Walt Disney animated features, it also seems to be connected to danger. All of the films include ‘the beautiful’ being in harm’s way and many of these instances are the direct result of the character’s physical appearance. This is especially the case in the older films where the beautiful must flee or disguise herself for protection because of her beauty (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 719). This illustrates the link between beauty and jealousy which almost exclusively concerns female characters. SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS offers a clear example of this: “The murderous actions taken by Snow White’s stepmother remind viewers of the symbolic lengths some women go to maintain or acquire beauty”(Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 715-716).
Another important theme is that, in the Disney universe, social class is linked to one’s ethnicity. Most of the white Princesses are of royalty and even though Snow White and Cinderella are dressed in rags and are forced to serve their families, they are still of nobility. However, Tiana, the black Princess, is just a poor lower working class girl. She is a plain servant, who caters to everyone’s demand. By presenting the white Princesses as from a higher class in contrast to the black Princess, Disney is reinforcing racial denigration. Floya Anthias states:
Class is not merely a system for assigning economic recourses, it also involves cultural and symbolic facets which endow competencies to, and valuations of, particular types of human persons. […]This is also mirrored in ideas about ‘race’ and gender as expressions and performances of the stigmata of the body or of nature. The symbolic value attached to these involves allocating individuals and groupings of individuals to particular places in the social order of things in a hierarchical fashion.
(Anthias, 2001: 851-852)
In the Disney universe, where whiteness has been placed in a higher social position than blackness, being white is represented and valued as higher than being black, while at the same time it is suggested that white people are more competent than black people. Anthias explains how social divisions entail boundaries which “can be identified in terms of the principle of relationality/dichotomy, the principle of naturalization and the principle of collective attributions” (Anthias, 2001: 843-844). Thus, difference and identity are constructed by relationality in terms of a dichotomy or a binary opposition: black people/white people. She goes on to explain that by putting people into categories, social outcomes are naturalized which results in the idea that they are fixed. One of the consequences of this is that ethnic differences appear to be natural, unchangeable and fixed (Anthias, 2001: 844). Anthias and Yuval-Davis describe how ethnic divisions are supported by this notion of a ‘natural’ relation. In ethnic divisions this is the case “by assumptions concerning the ‘natural’ boundaries of collectiveness of the ‘naturalness’ of culture. In capitalist societies […] very often the ‘natural’ ideological elements of […] ethnic divisions are used to ‘naturalize’ unequal class divisions” (Anthias and Yuval-Davis, 1983: 67). In patriarchal societies, it is perceived to be normal that white people occupy a higher economic position than black people (Anthias and Yuval-Davis, 1983: 67).
Anthias states that processes of hierarchisation are attached to notions of inferiorisation (Anthias, 2001: 845). Thus, in the Disney universe where white Princesses are of nobility and ‘the other’ comes from a low social and economic class, the idea is constructed that otherness involves being of a lower social position. At the same it suggests that ‘the other’ is a deviation to the human norm. In this process the white Princesses are seen as the standard, while at the same time they create an ideal image. Tiana does not live up to this standard and is seen as deficient, not simply as different.
Another theme where ethnicity plays an important role is the representation of woman as ‘Other’. As I stated, de Beauvoir explains how women’s status in patriarchal culture is that of ‘Other’. According to de Beauvoir women are “defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her; she is the incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute – she is the Other” (de Beauvoir in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 90). Accordingly, man stands for the rational and culture, while woman embodies the irrational and nature. This notion is apparent in the analyzed Walt Disney animated features where all the Princesses have animal sidekicks who assist them in their daily activities, they accompany the Princesses on their adventures and even help conquer the villain. The female protagonists are represented as if they are in need of their animal friends. This reinforces and validates the notion of women being closer to nature. However, in this representation, a distinction has been made: the white Princesses are represented as close to Nature, Tiana, as the black Princess, becomes part of Nature. As I stated in the analysis of THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG black people are often identified with nature, symbolizing primitiveness (Hall, 1997: 239). It was thought that black and white people differed biologically. This idea was promoted in the nineteenth century by scientists and was used to justify the notion of black people being assimilated to nature, whereas white people were assimilated to culture. This resulted in the hierarchical divisions of humans. In the twentieth century it was established that there was no scientific basis for this concept of race, but despite “the evidence that races in the biological sense did not exist… large sections of the population, and indeed whole societies, continued to conduct themselves as though they did” (Mason in Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 132). As illustrated in THE PRINCESS AND THE FROG old habits die hard. By presenting the white Princesses as related to nature, as opposed to being a part of it, whiteness is presented as higher and more civilized. Whiteness represents normality while otherness seems to symbolize an inferior deviation to the human norm (Anthias, 2001: 845).
Last, the way the color blue is used with all of the Princesses brings up an interesting concept. As I stated in the analysis of SNOW WHITE AND THE SEVEN DWARFS, Snow White’s gown is partially blue. The use of the color blue is not restricted to Snow White however, Ariel is seen wearing a blue dress when Prince Eric shows her the town and Tiana wears blue gown to the ball. Since it is a recurring theme I became curious. Walt Disney animated features are filled with messages concerning normative femininity, normative heterosexuality and ethnicity; the frequent and returning use of the color blue hardly seems like a coincidence. The Disney heroines are supposed to present ‘proper’ ladies and serve as examples of the feminine ideal. They are submissive and represent innocence, virtue and passiveness. In Christianity, the Virgin Mary is often depicted wearing blue, thus by presenting the Disney heroines in clothing of this color images of the Virgin Mary and her virtue come to mind. Furthermore, the color blue is frequently used in Christianity as a symbol of heavenly grace, hope and the state of servitude while symbolizing truth and fidelity (Steffler, 2002: 13) and the Bible states: “The blueness of the wound, cleanseth away all evil” (Proverbs, 20: 30). The traits connected to the color blue are characteristics which are rewarded in the Disney universe. The Princesses are represented as pure young women, embodying everything a ‘proper’ lady should. At the same time other (‘wrong’) types of femininity are inferior who we must be “cleansethed” from. Thus, the color blue, with its connotations to the Virgin Mary, faithfulness and virtue, can be seen as yet another device used in the Disney universe to symbolize ‘perfect’ femininity. Therefore, it would not be surprising if this is the reason why so many of the Princesses are dressed in shades of azure (Orenstein, 2011: 36). Considering that the Disney heroines function as examples for ‘proper’ ladies it is understandable that not only their behavior and looks coincide with the feminine ideal, but that also their clothing enforces the representation of a ‘perfect’ woman.

Identity Formation
Two out of three characters in children’s television programs are boys or men. The girls and women that are important are either beautiful damsels in distress or they represent the wicked witch. Children’s media can be a powerful device to teach cultural norms and values to children. Through fairy tales in the media, such as Disney films, girls (and boys) are taught about normative femininity (and masculinity), the Self and the Other and normative heterosexuality (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 724). The messages presented in Walt Disney’s tales show means by which women and men can attain status. Considering the staggering amount of fairy tales and the way they are profiled in our society, specifically by Walt Disney, there are many opportunities for these messages to become internalized by girls and boys. (Baker-Sperry and Grauerholz, 2003: 724). The Princesses in Walt Disney animated features reproduce the ideals of female beauty which are present in Western society. These beauty ideals are being passed on to girls at a very early age, influencing their thoughts and standards:
One of the most useful sets of cultural products for investigating cultural motifs and values is children’s stories, which according to Bettelheim (1962) are a major means by which children assimilate culture.
(Baker-Sperry & Grauerholz, 2003: 713)
The products manufactured by the Disney company are loaded with meaning, norms and values, many of them are deliberately encoded, while others may not have been intended (Wasko, 2001: 117).
Looking back on my own childhood, especially while writing this thesis, I wish I would have rejected the passive, personality free Princesses swept off by a Prince to live in a happily ever after that he ultimately controls. I was a Disney kid: I had the dresses, the lunchbox, the jewelry, the makeup, the clothes, the birthday parties and everything else. But it was not up until my early teenage years that the Disney Princesses became an actual concept. Apparently they did not exist until 2000; that is when Andy Mooney came in and introduced this phenomenon. Disney had always marketed its characters before, but never separate from a film’s release (Orenstein, 2011: 13). The first Princess items sold very well: “Within a year, sales had soared to 300 million dollars. By 2009 they were at four billion. Four billion dollars! There are more than 26000 Disney Princess items on the market […]Princess has not only become the fastest growing brand the company has ever created, it is the largest franchise on the planet for girls aged two to six” (Orenstein, 2011: 14).
I can imagine that some girls (or boys for that matter) like to play princess, but when they are bombarded with 26000 items it makes me wonder: does one really want to play princess, or are they forced to? Where does want end and coercion begin? Henry Giroux, in his article Is Disney Good For Your Kids? explains that what is unique about Disney is that the brand is connected to a notion of childhood innocence, it represents itself as a form of wholesome entertainment. Because of this, it manages to avoid criticism as to whether or not Disney is forced on children (Giroux, 2011, 76): Giroux goes on to explain:
As an icon of American culture and middle class family values, Disney actively appeals to both conscientious parents and youthful fantasies as it works hard to transform every child into a lifetime consumer of Disney products and ideas. Put the corporation under scrutiny, however, and a contradiction quickly appears between a Disney culture that presents itself as the paragon of virtue and childlike innocence and the reality of the company’s cutthroat commercial ethos. (Giroux, 2011, 76)
It seems as if Walt Disney came prepared for such criticism. Critique on hidden messages concerning appearance and behavior are swept under the rug as Mooney states: “I see girls expanding their imagination through visualizing themselves as princesses, and then they pass through that phase and end up becoming lawyers, doctors, mothers, or princesses, whatever the case may be” (Mooney in Orenstein, 2011: 16). This may be true, but the fact still remains that Walt Disney is sending out messages that reinforce patriarchal stereotypes where the domestication and silencing of women is celebrated and the man is the champion of the film (Wasko, 2001: 130). Furthermore, Orenstein explains how the consumption of media is related to the way girls see themselves. It appears to be that the more girls come into contact with mainstream media, the more importance they place on being pretty and sexy. Moreover, teenage girls and college students who have conventional ideas regarding femininity are less ambitious than those who do not. (Orenstein, 2011: 16) It is thus suffice to say that messages regarding normative femininity are internalized and they most certainly have an impact on girls and women.
Wrapping itself in a discourse of innocence by presenting itself as an icon of family values and wholesome entertainment, Disney’s highly influential messages certainly come across. According to a survey which was taken in 2006, of more than 2000 school aged children, girls described how they felt a constant pressure to be perfect: “not only to get straight A’s and be the student body president, editor of the newspaper, and captain of the swim team, but also to be ‘kind and caring’, ‘please everyone, be very thin, and dress right’” (Orenstein, 2011: 18). The number of girls who became obsessed with their appearance actually rose between 2000 and 2006. Orenstein states that this indicates that the introduction of the Disney Princess has influenced this (Orenstein, 2011: 18). Young girls are now struggling to fulfill all the expectations, both ‘old’ and ‘new’. They don’t feel like they have a choice in how to be a woman, but that they must embody everything at the same time: they must be smart and beautiful, straightforward and agreeable, the perfect princess and superwoman (Orenstein, 2011: 17).
Disney’s entertainment platforms bombard viewers with norms, values and patriarchal messages. Giroux advises people to challenge these notions:
Rather than participate mindlessly in the Disneyfication of culture, we all need to excavate the excluded memories and silenced voices that could challenge the uncomplicated commodified identities offered to young people by Disney in the name of innocence and entertainment. As one of the most influential corporations of the world, Disney does more than just provide entertainment: It also shapes in very powerful ways how young people (are supposed to) understand themselves, relate to others, and experience the larger society.
(Giroux, 2011: 90, own emphasis included)
It is thus suffice to say that Walt Disney animated features influence the young minds of girls. It has been stated that children’s stories, as presented in Walt Disney films, are a major means by which children assimilate culture. Accordingly, these messages become internalized and impact the way young girls and women think about themselves. Moreover, it influences their actions. it is because of this that critical analyses of the films are necessary in order to challenge the normative identities that they offer.

Conclusion
By looking beyond and behind the fair façade of the Disney universe it has become obvious that among the many messages contained in Disney films, those concerning the importance of normative femininity are paramount. Combined, all analyzed discursive factors propose a somewhat different representation of femininity throughout the years, though I did find many similarities in the deeper structure of the film. Snow White obviously exemplifies the feminine ideal as elucidated upon in Virginia Woolf’s Professions for Women. The feminine ideal of being a wife who is selflessly devoted and submissive to her husband (and everyone around her) fits perfectly into Snow White’s goal. Marriage is her ultimate life dream as it is the destination appointed to her. Ariel, who represents the more modern Princesses, starts off wanting to explore the (human) world. She is inquisitive, disobedient and independent. This changes however: halfway through the film she gives up her voice, her independence and her adventurous nature. She becomes fixated on Prince Eric and wants nothing more than to marry him. Eventually, she is transformed into a ‘proper’ lady and embraces her position as second sex. Last, Tiana, she too starts off as an independent hard working woman who will stop at nothing to achieve her dream, on her own. Accordingly, she is presented as an active young woman who goes after what she wants. But she conforms to the norm as well, puts on a poufy gown and marries Prince Naveen. It seems as though Disney is sending out a message stating that being an independent and inquisitive woman is alright, but only if it is temporary and in the end you abide by society’s rules. Appearance and narrative thus point in the same direction, though now with a different starting point: the independent and autonomous woman. In relation to this, marriage is seen as a normalizing institution which all ‘proper’ ladies should engage in. It is presented as the only thing a ‘good woman’ should and could want in life, indicating that it is the only option available to women. Both in the old and newer features the Princesses are swept off their feet by Prince Charming who gives them their happily ever after. Therefore, in the Disney universe, heterosexuality is the norm. It is used as a tool to represent normal behavior while at the same time it is portrayed as a reward for those who have conformed to it. It is only after the Princesses have married their Prince that they seem to deserve their happy ending. Those who do not live up to this standard are punished by being killed.
The notion of women as the second sex seems to be validated and upheld in the analyzed Walt Disney animated features. The female protagonists are represented as passive, caring and the object and are put in the role of Other, be it from the beginning of the film, like Snow White, or at a later point, exemplified by Ariel and Tiana. The Princesses are put in the role of Other and are associated to nature rather than culture. Ethnicity plays an interesting role in the representation of woman as Other in the analyzed features. Where the white Western Princesses have animal sidekicks to help with their daily activities and overthrow the villain, the black Princess becomes the animal sidekick herself. She is not merely assisted by her animal friends, she becomes one of them. The white Princesses are thus represented as close to nature, whereas the black Princess is represented as part of nature. This shows a representation where a hierarchical division of humans is at play, suggesting that whiteness is higher and more civilized. Whiteness represents normality while ‘otherness’ seems to symbolize an inferior deviation to the human norm. It is however important to note that I have only analyzed a limited amount of features due to the confinements of this research. It would be interesting to study how the intersection of gender and ethnicity is at play in a wider range of Walt Disney animated features.
By analyzing the Walt Disney features through the relationship between discourse, knowledge and power, it has become clear that normative femininity and normative heterosexuality are constructed, celebrated and upheld in the films. Accordingly, the Princesses live happily ever after if they conform to the norm that is created. As Foucault states, knowledge, since it is connected to power, has the ability to make itself true. Once applied in the real world, it has real effects and in this sense ‘becomes true’. Since the Walt Disney films are applied, by being presented in the real world, they in fact have real effects and ‘become true’. This is apparent in many aspects. On the one hand, it has been productive in the way that the construction of a reality which represents normative femininity and normative heterosexuality has produced an explosion of discourse: talk about sex, television, films, legislation, literature, articles and study programs have emerged. However, representations of normative femininity and normative heterosexuality also have other effects: the messages which are sent out regarding femininity, masculinity and (hetero)sexuality, obviously effect the identity formation of young girls (and boys). I did not have enough space to elaborate on this phenomenon to fully answer the question how the construction of femininity influences the identity formation of young girls, but it has become clear that the identity formation is definitely effected. It is thus suffice to say that this topic deserves more attention. I look forward to a new study which analyzes the effects of Walt Disney’s universe.

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Media
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Dir. Ben Sharpsteen, David Hand, Larry Morey, Perce Pearce, Wilfred Jackson and William Cottrell. The Walt Disney Company, 1937. Videocassette.
Cinderella. Dir. Clyde Geronimi, Hamilton Luske and Wilfred Jackson. The Walt Disney Company, 1950. DVD.
Alice in Wonderland. Dir. Clyde Geronimi. Hamilton Luske and Wilfred Jackson. Walt Disney Pictures, 1951. Videocassette.
Peter Pan. Dir. Clyde Geronimi. Hamilton Luske and Wilfred Jackson. Walt Disney Pictures, 1953. Videocassette.
Sleeping Beauty. Dir. Clyde Geronimi, Les Clark, Eric Larson and Wolfgang Reitherman. Walt Disney Pictures and Buena Vista Distribution, 1959. DVD.
The Little Mermaid. Dir. John Musker and Ron Clements. Walt Disney Pictures, 1989. DVD.
Beauty and the Beast. Dir. Gary Trousdale and Kirk Wise. Walt Disney Pictures, 1991. DVD.
Aladdin. Dir. John Musker and Ron Clements. Walt Disney Pictures, 1992. Videocassette.
Pocahontas. Dir. Eric Goldberg and Mike Gabriel. Walt Disney Pictures and Buena Vista Distribution, 1995. Videocassette.
Mulan. Dir. Barry Cook and Tony Bancroft. Walt Disney Pictures, 1998. Videocassette.
The Princess and the Frog. Dir. John Musker and Ron Clements. Walt Disney Pictures, 2009. DVD.