self-efficacy

Related Literature

The review of the related literature of this study focuses mainly on the leadership behavior and the role of self-determination and self-efficacy of business student leaders. . This section contains articles that will determine the role of self-determination and self-efficacy to the leadership behavior of students.
Leadership Behavior
Desiring of what will happen in the future by the process of creating a mental image is called visualization. Studies show that visualization helps train the brain to perform the task ahead and thus, primes the brain for success (n.a, 2014). Moreover, according to Daniel (2011), one way to become optimistic is to realize that in order to successfully accomplish the goals in life is to keep moving forward. Knocking off the tasks that help to achieve the goal is then impossible to fail. Realizing that all things are possible with determination and dedication, then becoming positive in pursuing the tasks what the individual is doing is simple.
Furthermore, goal orientation is based on contemporary “goal-as-motives” theory where it is postulated that “all actions are given meaning, direction, and purpose by the goals that individuals seek out, and that the quality and intensity of behavior will change as these goals change ( Ryan & Deci, 2008).
Hence, at the end of the day, when an individual is finished in everything that is needed to do, rewarding is the best compensation. This reward has two purposes. First, it will satisfy the person about the tasks that is accomplished, and second, it serves as payment for following through. That reward will stay in the mind, and individual wants to be rewarded frequently (Daniel, 2011).

Self-Determination

Self-determination is the drive to determine the thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and choices over life events of an individual. It includes the internal motivation and self-awareness that encourages in defining personal goals based on interests, preferences, values, and needs (n.a., 2011). Being determined is holding the most deeply engaged, and doing the most creative work, and act according to the own will on behalf of goals that found to be meaningful. To reach goals, according to Chernoff (2009), setting strategies and plans will employ motivation burning and progress on track. And these strategies that learners can use: (1) pasting up goals where it can be seen every day; (2) creating a visualization board; (3) forming a small mastermind group; (4) creating a daily action plan with actionable tasks; and (5) setting a deadline. According to Barney and Griffin (2000), goals provide guidance and direction, facilitate planning, motivate and inspire employees, and help organizations evaluate and control performance. However, asking for honest feedback or input about either leadership or working experience from the employees for the organization can feel risky. A litany of complaints and difficult requests, or worse: critical feedback about one’s leadership may be expected. These risks might prevent from asking. (Gilburg Leadership Incorporated, 2009).
People are centrally concerned with determination, how to move an identity or others to act. Everywhere, parents, teachers, coaches, and managers’ struggle on motivating individuals and to exert to find energy, mobilize effort and persist at the tasks of life and work. People are often moved by external factors such as reward systems, grades, evaluations, or the feared opinion about one’s character. Yet just as frequently, people are motivated from within, by interests, curiosity, care or abiding values. These intrinsic motivations are not necessarily externally rewarded or supported, but nonetheless it can sustain passions, creativity, and efforts. Women are more inclined to have self-determination than men. Women knew how to boost oneself in every situation dealt with (Deci and Ryan. 2001).
According to Albert Bandura (1992), virtually all people can identify goals to accomplish, things needed to be changed and achieved. However, most people also realize that putting these plans into action is not quite so simple. Bandura said, "It is not the sheer intensity of emotional and physical reactions that is important but rather how they are perceived and interpreted".
Parents and families have the most direct and lasting impact on children's learning and development of social competence. When parents are involved, students achieve more, exhibit more positive attitudes and behavior, and feel more comfortable in new settings. Early childhood providers need to reach out to families in order to build the kind of relationships that will be engaged as active partners in a children's education. A student becomes more productive and effective when parents and family attends to the need of the child. (National Dropout Prevention Center/Network, 2003).On the other hand, families are crucial partners in promoting positive social skills. Home visits, parent visitation to child care or school setting, telephone conversations, newsletters, informal notes, bulletin boards, workshops, and regular face-to-face communication can be used to keep families informed about the goals of the child. Parents must not only know the needs of the child but also facilitate ways in order to achieve it. Guidance of parents is very helpful to make children be more goals achiever (Adams, 2014).

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is commonly defined as the belief in one's capabilities to achieve a goal or an outcome. A student with a strong sense of efficacy is more likely to challenge its own character with difficult tasks and be intrinsically motivated. A student with low self-efficacy, on the other hand, believes one cannot be successful and thus are less likely to make a concerted, extended effort and may consider challenging tasks as threats that are to be avoided. Thus, students with poor self-efficacy have low aspirations which may result in disappointing academic performances becoming part of a self-fulfilling feedback cycle (Kirk, 2013).
The most effective way of developing a strong sense of efficacy is through mastery experiences. Performing a task successfully strengthens our sense of self-efficacy. However, failing to adequately deal with a task or challenge can undermine and weaken self-efficacy.

Related Studies The purpose of this section is to show the relevant findings of several studies in relation to the leadership behavior of students and the role of self-determination and self-efficacy.
Leadership Behavior

According to the study of Anderman (1997) entitled “Changes in Achievement Goal Orientations, Perceived Academic Competence, and Grades across the Transition to Middle-Level Schools”, researchers found that students who perceived an emphasis on task goals in the classroom showed more positive attitudes toward learning and used more effective learning strategies than did students who perceived an emphasis on performance in the classroom. Moreover, on the study of Schunk (1990), those who believe they are capable on tasks at which they can succeed expend efforts which produce competence from others via learning.
Previous research in achievement situations where self-efficacy is developed largely through self-performances has shown that efficacy judgments are not mere reflections of those performances. The study of Schunk (1984) supports this finding, because children in the rewards-only, goals-only, and rewards + goals conditions did not differ in their rates of problem solving during training but rewards + goals subjects subsequently judged self-efficacy higher. That experimental treatments did not differentially influence task motivation is not surprising, because proximal goals and performance-contingent rewards, by themselves, motivate young children.
Eagly (2003) studied “The Female leadership advantage: An evaluation of the evidence”, has shown that successful female leaders generally work hard and seek leadership styles that do not unnecessarily elicit resistance to their authority by challenging norms dictating that women be free and supportive of others. In addition, the study of Bartone and Snook (2002) agrees that gender was found to be associated with leadership performance, with female cadets has significantly higher leadership than men. However, in the study of Evans (1997) entitled “Men in nursing: issues of gender segregation and hidden advantage”, the entrance of men into the nursing profession does not signal a progressive integration of masculine and feminine sex roles. The evidence presented in his paper suggests that, even within female-dominated occupations such as nursing, patriarchal gender relations play a significant role in situating a small number of men in positions of status and power. The hope for change, then lies in challenging and transforming hegemonic notions of masculinity and femininity. Self-Determination
Under the of Vallerand et. al.(1997) entitled “Self-Determination and persistence in a Real-Life Setting: Toward a Motivational Model of High School Dropout”, researchers found that dropout students are not motivated extrinsically in a meaningful and choiceful manner, or identified, as persistent students are. Many students’ are not intrinsically motivated but rather are performed in an extrinsic fashion. When intrinsic motivation is self-determined, positive outcomes, including persistence may be expected. However, when extrinsic motivation is not self-determined, negative outcomes may ensue. Additionally, in the study entitled “Motivation and Education: The Self-Determination Perspective” by Deci et. al. (1991), found that social context support people’s being competent, related, and autonomous will promote intentional action. Similarly, supports for relatedness (e.g., interpersonal involvement of parents and teachers) will enhance motivate on in general but will enhance intrinsic motivation and integrated internalization only if the involved others are autonomy supportive. Furthermore, in the study of Greene et. al. (2004) titled “Predicting High School Students’ Cognitive Engagement and Achievement: Contributions of Classroom Perceptions and Motivations”, shown that when tasks are perceived to be instrumental to personally valued future goals, their incentive value is enhanced through the future goals to which they are connected. It is the incentive value that gives the tasks meaning. When tasks are perceived to be instrumental because of the importance of the skills, then the students are more likely to adopt mastery goals.
In the study of American Psychological Association (2004) entitled “Increasing Student Success Through Instruction in Self-Determination”, found that students who are more involved in setting educational goals are more likely to reach their goals. When students perceive that the primary focus of learning is to obtain external rewards, such as a grade on an exam, they often perform more poorly, think of them as less competent, and report greater anxiety than when they believe that exams are simply a way for them to monitor their own learning. Some studies have found that the use of external rewards actually decreased motivation for a task for which the student initially was motivated. Also, researchers concluded that such rewards tend to have a substantially negative effect on intrinsic motivation by undermining people's taking responsibility for motivating or regulating themselves. On the other hand, goals are representation of our inner desires; desires which motivate in life. Having goals serve as a constant reminder of the motivational sources. School, as one of the sources of motivation serves as a fuel which drive us forward and keep us going. On the other hand, pursuing higher education can be quite stressful and being placed in a class with annoying or rude students will only compound this problem. Students who are happy with their surroundings and fellow classmates are typically much more productive than those who are not (Vann, 2014). Someone at school help a student to perform well and to be more determined.
Self-Efficacy

In the study of Chemers et.al., (2001), academic self-efficacy was significantly and directly related to academic expectations and academic performance. Students who enter college with confidence in their ability to perform well academically do perform significantly better than do less confident students. Likewise, students who have higher expectations for academic success show higher performance. In other words, academic self-efficacy has predictive power and beyond more objective measures such as past performance on academic tasks. Nevertheless, the relationship between gender and self-efficacy has been a focus of research of Schunk and Pajares (2001) entitled “The Development of Academic Self-Efficacy”. In general, researchers report that boys and men tend to be more confident than girls and women in academic areas related to mathematics, science, and technology, despite the fact that achievement differences in these areas either are diminishing or have disappeared. Conversely, in areas related to language arts, male and female students exhibit similar confidence despite the fact that the achievement of girls typically is higher. On the contrary, according to the another study of Pajares (2003) titled “Self-Efficacy Beliefs, Motivation, and Achievement In Writing: A Review Of The Literature” , the focus of the research is in the area of writing, and researcher have typically found that girls report stronger confidence in their writing capabilities than do boys, at least through middle school. These differences may begin at very early ages and it is possible that they may diminish, or even reverse, as students get older. It is reported that at grade 9, boys held stronger writing self-efficacy than did girls. Researchers have observed that girls experience a drop in their academic motivation and perceptions of competence as they reach high school, perhaps because they begin to encounter classroom structures that emphasize a masculine form of discourse.