Sports Coaches As Mentors Research

SPORTS COACHES AS MENTORS: A RESOURCE FOR SOCIAL WORK SERVICES TO ADOLESCENTS

by

LYNDELE DOROTHY ROSSELLOTY

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MASTERS OF ARTS IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (MENTAL HEALTH)

at the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: PROF W F VAN DELFT

JUNE 2010

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DECLARATION I declare that: ‘Sports coaches as mentors: a resource for social work services to adolescents’ is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

……………… L.D. Rosselloty

…………………. Date

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to all the children and coaches who participated in the research and made it possible. Thank you to my long time work colleague Ronelle Ferreira for her technical assistance.

iii ABSTRACT

The research was motivated by social workers’ need to develop additional resources to address the problems of
adolescents in disadvantaged communities. The main goal was to explore mentors as a potential resource. More specifically whether sports coaches could be considered natural mentors in terms of the social support they provided to their adolescent players. The types of social support the literature ascribed to mentors were used to analyze the experiences of a sample of 10coaches and 63 adolescents drawn from six schools. The data was gathered through individual interviews with coaches and single focus groups with the adolescents. The findings suggested sports coaches were competent to provide guidance on certain moral, social and educational topics in a group mentoring situation as well as one on one mentoring to individual cases as part of a multi disciplinary team. Key words: social work, mentors, sports coaches and adolescents.

iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABSTRACT

i ii iii CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1 1
1

1.1 1.2 1.3

1.4 1.5

1.6 1.7 1.8

SELECTING AND DEFINING THE RESEARCH TOPIC RESEARCH QUESTION GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1.3.1 Goal 1.3.2 Objectives CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1.5.1 Research design 1.5.2 Sampling procedures 1.5.2.1 Selection of Participating Schools 1.5.2.2 Selection of Participants 1.5.3 Research instrumentation 1.5.3.1 Interview schedules and focus group questions 1.5.3.2 Pre-testing the research tools 1.5.4 Data collection 1.5.5 Data analysis ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS LIMITATIONS PRESENTATION OF CONTENTS

4 5 5 5 5 7 7 7 8 9 10 10 11 12 13 14 14 15
16 16

CHAPTER TWO RESOURCES IN SOCIAL WORK SERVICES TO ADOLESCENTS

2.1 2.2

RESOURCES FROM A SOCIAL WORK PERSPECTIVE SOCIAL SUPPORT 2.2.1 Social Support and Social Networks 2.2.2 Types of social support
OBSTACLES TO SOCIAL SUPPORT SOCIAL SUPPORT DURING ADOLESCENCE

16 19 19 21
22

2.3 2.4

24

CHAPTER THREE

MENTORS AND THEIR ROLES

26 26

3.1

DEFINITION OF MENTORING

v 3.2 3.3 3.4 MENTORING AND ITS IMPACT ON THE DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS OF ADOLESCENTS RESEARCH STUDIES WITH REGARD TO NATURAL MENTORS TYPES OF SUPPORT PROVIDED BY MENTORS

27 32 42
45

CHAPTER FOUR RESILIENCE THEORY

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7

HISTORY OF CONCEPT OF RESILIENCE DEFINITION OF RESILIENCE PROTECTIVE FACTORS AND RESILIENCE A BREAKDOWN OF PROTECTIVE FACTORS INTO CATEGORIES RESILIENCE IN ADOLESCENCE FIELD STUDIES IN RESPECT OF RESILIENCE SUMMARY OF FREQUENCY OF PROTECTIVE FACTORS FOUND IN
THE LITERATURE

45 45 46 47 52 56 58
60

CHAPTER FIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5

5.6 5.7

THE RESEARCH DESIGN THE SAMPLE COLLECTION OF DATA INTERVIEW QUESTIONS PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTATION 5.5.1 Focus groups 5.5.2 Interviews with coaches ANALYSIS OF DATA INTERPRETATION OF DATA

60 60 64 65 66 66 67 67 68

CHAPTER SIX CONTEMPLATING THE RELEVANCE OF THE DATA AND FINDINGS FOR SOCIAL WORK SERVICES YOUTH 85

6.1 6.2 6.3

AN OUTLINE OF SUGGESTED PROGRAMS FOR SOCIAL WORK
WITH YOUTH

SOCIAL WORK WITH YOUTH IN PRACTICE SUGGESTIONS REGARDING THE TRAINING AND SUPERVISION OF
SPORTS COACHES

85 89 94

CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

98

7.1 7.2

SUMMARY OF THE MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS RECOMMENDATIONS 7.2.1 Recommendations for Practice

98 105 105

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7.2.2 Recommendations for future research
BIBLIOGRAPHY

109
111

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Social Support Networks Table 2.2: Typology of social support Table 2.3: Different types of reinforcers Table 3.1: Types of Social Support Provided by Mentors

20 21 23 43

Table 4.1: Examples of attributes of individuals and their contexts often associated with resilience Table 5.1: Status of Schools in the sample Table 5.2: Sample of Adolescents Table 5.3: Analysis of Types of Social Support Table 6.1 Questions staff can ask mentors for the purpose of supervision and evaluation
LIST OF FIGURES

48 62 63 68

97

Figure 3.1: Social support accessed by teenage Mothers Figure 4.1: Frequency of categories of protective factors Figure 5.1: Sample of adolescents by race and gender Figure 5.2: Cognitive Support Figure 5.3: Good sportsmanship Figure 5.4: Tangible Support
LIST OF DIAGRAMS

29 59 64 69 70 82

Diagram 6.1: Hypothesized Mechanisms through which Mentoring May Influence Youth Development Outcomes in Multicomponent Interventions.
ANNEXURE

88

Annexure 1: Interview schedules: coaches and adolescents Annexure 2: Interviews and focus group records with coaches and Adolescents Annexure 3: Analysis of Themes and Subthemes of social support

119 121 154

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Chapter 1 General Introduction
Introduction This chapter discusses the reasons for choosing the particular line of inquiry, the initial as well as the redefined topic and the role played by the literature study in this process. The significance of the research is highlighted in terms of its expected contribution to enhancing social work services to adolescents. Research methods are

discussed in terms of how practical situations in the field influenced both sampling and data collection procedures.

1.1 Selecting and defining the research topic The impetus for this research was the conviction of the youth in a ‘devastated community’ (to borrow a phrase from Kretzman and Mcknight: 1993), to whom I had rendered social work services in partial fulfilment of the Masters Degree in Mental Health, that participation in sport would help them to abstain from substance abuse and engagement in criminal activities. These authors refer to a devastated community as one where “the disappearance of decent employment possibilities from low – income neighbourhoods, has taken place, thus by implication resultant unemployment and poverty.... they (the community) are images of crime and violence, of joblessness and welfare dependency, of gangs and drugs and homelessness”. (Kretzman and McKnight l993: 29)

This type of problem behaviour is common in many communities on the East and Far East Rand where the researcher, as a manager with the Department of Health and Social Development, is responsible for services to children over the age of 12 years. According to the 2001 census there are 195,795 children between the ages of 13 to 17years are resident in the area. The initial topic for research, formulated as ‘An exploration of how sport and social work interventions could be combined in a development program for youth,’ is in line with Fouche’s (in de Vos 2002:117) observation that “in qualitative research, questions and problems for research often come from real life observations, dilemmas and questions”.

2 The next step was a literature study that was undertaken to “show the path of prior research and how the current project is linked to it”, as well as to gain direction regarding the formulation of the research goals and objectives. (Neuman and Kreuger 2003: 461) However the literature studied was not clear on the impact of participation in sport with some authors suggesting that it trigged negative behaviour such as “the increased use of alcohol” (Eccles, Barber, Stone and Hunt: 2003) and “higher rates of negative peer interaction and inappropriate adult behaviour.” (Hansen, Larson and Dworkin: 2003) Therefore there was a need to refine the research topic, something which is particularly common in qualitative research. As pointed out by Neuman and Kreuger

(2003:161) “the qualitative researcher is open to unanticipated data and constantly evaluates the focus early in the study.”

In trying to understand the diverse outcomes attributed to participation in sport, I encountered what appeared to be a mediating factor namely the behaviour and actions of the sports coach. For example Beller (2002) asserted that coaches could become positive role models in promoting respect for societal rules provided they focused on players’ potential rather than winning, gave them feedback and taught them moral competencies. Catalano, Arthur, Hawkins, Benhard and Olson’s (1998) research in terms of community based programmes, which included sport, linked mentorship to a decrease in youth truancy. According to these authors this was conditional on the mentor developing a warm and positive relationship with the youth, as well as rewarding desired behaviour materially. Larson (1994:57) who examined the relationship between the development of self-esteem and extra curricular activities (which included sport) found that some positive correlation between the two depended on “the quality of the coach or adult leader” and the youth’s attitude towards sport.

The above information further narrowed the area of the proposed research to the mentoring attributes of the sports coach. The literature suggested two distinct types of mentors, namely formal and natural mentors. Formal mentors are defined as adults who are assigned to work with youth through a structured mentoring programme such as the American Big Brothers and Big Sisters. Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Behrendt (in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 143) describe natural mentors as non parental adults “ from whom a young person

3 receives support and guidance as a result of a relationship developed without the help of a program specifically designed to connect youth and adults to form such a relationship”. Some authors (Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Notaro 2002; DuBois and Silverthorn 2005 and Sanchez, Esparza and Colon 2008) found that natural mentors had a mediating impact on certain problem behavior such as chemical abuse, truancy and non violent acting out behavior although others such as Beam, Chen, and Greenberger (2002) referred to more general social support such as that of being the adolescents’ confident and someone with whom he could have fun. In the research conducted by Zimmerman et al (2002) and DuBois and Silverthorn (2005), and as discussed in detail in chapter 3, sports coaches were identified as natural mentors by some of the adolescent participants. These studies suggest that natural mentors have a role to play in a variety of programs to youth. Firstly on a preventative level by helping them fulfill their developmental goals and make a successful transition to adulthood. Secondly at an early intervention level, as part of therapeutic programs to at risk youth who already display problem behavior so as to obviate the need for statutory services including residential care.

According to The Service Delivery Model for Developmental Social Services, a policy document developed by the National Department of Social Development in 2005, social workers are tasked to implement the preventative and early intervention programs referred to in the previous paragraph with various focus groups including youth. Due to the acute paucity of social workers there is a need to work in collaboration with other social service providers. In terms of the national norm of 1 social worker per 5000 persons in the population defined in the aforementioned document, a total of 1767 social workers are needed to service Gauteng’s population of 8,837,172 as at the 2001 census. The Department of Social Development estimates that an additional 2000 social workers will be required in the first year of implementation of the new Children’s Act 38\2005.This brings the total to 3767 social workers, while The South African Council for Social Service Professions indicated that according to the available figures 3379 social workers were registered with them in Gauteng. This translates to a short fall of 388 social workers and a population of 1.940, 000(calculated on the basis of 388 social workers multiplied by 5000 persons in the population) who will not receive services. In practical terms this short fall is

4 likely to be higher as the number of registered social workers includes those who are not involved in direct service delivery such as supervisors and policy makers. In addition the population figures for Gauteng have undoubtedly risen since the last census, which was held eight years ago.

The researcher is of the opinion that sports coaches who are mentors could be a valuable resource for social workers of the Department of Health and Social Development in reaching a larger number of adolescents as well as in contributing towards the efficacy of the programs rendered to them. According to the Department of Education, there are a total of approximately 101 secondary schools on the East Rand and Far East Rand who participate in sport and therefore who have adults who coach adolescents. As regards the actual programs, Kuperminc, Emshoff, Renier, Secret, Niolen and Foster (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) argue that mentoring is not only an effective component of a social work program for adolescents but also adds value to the other activities contained therein.

Adolescence also appears to be a particularly appropriate stage of development to include mentoring as part of social work programs as non-parental adults assume more relevance for adolescents as they seek to explore the environment beyond the family system. Research undertaken by Bo, (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) Gottlieb and Sylvester (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) and Hamilton and Darling (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) which is discussed in chapters 2 and 3 indicates that the significant others, including non-parental adults, present in social networks of adolescents provided them with social support. In these studies, as were the case in those carried out by Zimmerman et al (2002) and DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) and discussed earlier in this chapter, coaches were among the non parental adults identified by adolescents. The research topic was therefore redefined as ‘Sports coaches as mentors: a resource for social work services to adolescents.’

1.2 Research Question How can sports coaches as mentors serve as a potential resource in social work services to adolescents? To answer the research question certain goals and objectives were set and these are discussed in the next paragraph.

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1.3 Goals and objectives of the study Generally speaking, the purpose of this study is to generate knowledge that can be applied in the field of social work in order to bring about constructive change. It is envisaged that insight into how sports coaches could play a meaningful role in the lives of adolescents as mentors could make a contribution to devising more effective intervention strategies to address the problems of the adolescent. However, this research study will be confined to the actual collection, analysis and interpretation of data relating to Boksburg and Germiston, two geographical areas, on the East Rand. It can be regarded as applied research. 1.3.1 Goal The main goal of the study is to explore whether sports coaches who take on a mentoring role are a potential resource for social workers of the Department of Health and Social Development rendering services to adolescents. 1.3.2 Objectives The goal of the study will be achieved by fulfilling the following objectives: • Determine the theoretical basis of the mediating role played by mentors. • Identify the types of social support ascribed to mentors by means of a literature study. • Explore the nature of support offered by sports coaches to adolescents from the perspective of coaches and adolescents. • Make recommendations on the basis of research findings regarding the practical issues that need attention so that sports coaches could be integrated into intervention strategies as mentors to address the problems of adolescents in disadvantaged communities. • Suggest areas for future attention.

1.4 Clarification of Concepts 1.4.1 Children, youth and juvenile In the South African context, the White Paper for Social Welfare (1996) uses the terminology of ‘children’ ‘youth’ and ‘juvenile’. Children are

6 referred to as individuals under the age of 18 years, which is in line with the definition contained in the Child Care Act 74/1983. Childhood is further broken down into ‘early childhood’, the school going and adolescent years’ and ‘the launch of young adults’ (White Paper for Social Welfare (1996: 57). While youth can refer to a young adult, it is a far more expansive term encompassing individuals aged between 16 and 30 years. The term juvenile is used to refer to a youth offender between the age of 18 and 21 years.

For the purpose of this research, ‘youth’ will be understood as referring to individuals falling within the life period following childhood and prior to adulthood commonly known as adolescence and within the age group of 13 to 18 years. The words ‘youth’ and ‘adolescent’ will be used

interchangeably as according to the Readers Digest Universal Dictionary (1987sv ‘youth’), these words as well as teenager and juvenile are synonyms for each other and are all used to describe the time of life between childhood and adulthood. 1.4.2 Collaborative Alliance An enabling partnership facilitated by the social worker between the client and a resource. 1.4.3. Mentor “A person with greater experience than the mentee ....offers guidance or instruction –intended to facilitate the growth and development of the mentee....an emotional bond between mentor and mentee” (DuBois and Karcher 2005:3) 1.4.4 Mentee In the context of the study a mentee is an adolescent who has limited experience and is the recipient of guidance or instruction from the mentor with whom he or she has an emotional bond. 1.4.5 Resource This is anything that offers social support and so “facilitates people’s ability to define and achieve life goals.” (Berger, McBreen and Rifkin 1996:61) 1.4.6 Social support Kemp, Whittaker and Tracey (as quoted by Miley, O’Melia and DuBois 2004:351) observe that exchanges in social support networks provide

7 “emotional encouragement, concrete assistance or tangible aid, and advice and information.”

1.5 Research methodology 1.5.1 Research design The study took the form of a descriptive, explorative, cross-sectional and qualitative research design. The research was descriptive as the researcher sought to describe the phenomena of social support in general terms from the specific accounts given by coaches and adolescents. The explorative nature of the research was centred around the investigation of a potentially new role, that of a natural mentor, for sports coaches, a virtually unknown area of research in the South African context .The decision to undertake qualitative research was influenced by the subject matter, which involved coaches and adolescents describing their experiences of social support and their relationship with one another. Experiences and relationships are both emotionally laden phenomena and can best be understood within the context of a narrative and when the researcher is able to observe the responses of the participant. The responses yielded by the open-ended questions provided the qualitative data. The project was cross-sectional because data were collected at one point in time rather than over a long period. 1.5.2 Sampling procedures Terre Blanche, Durrheim and Painter (2006) point out that qualitative research does not typically draw random samples. Purposive sampling is more frequently used to select good examples of the phenomenon being researched. Similarly Strydom and Delport (in de Vos 2002:334) refer to non-probability sampling techniques in qualitative research practices, which “seek out individuals, groups and settings where the processes being studied are most likely to occur”. The researcher identified the school

setting for this reason and this section discusses the selection of the particular 6 schools as well as that of the participant 10coaches and 63 adolescents.

8 1.5.2.1 Selection of Participating Schools From the 101 schools situated on the East and Far East Rand and referred to earlier in this chapter, the researcher selected four high schools and two primary schools. This was based on two factors. Firstly the schools’ prior relationship with the Department of Health and Social Development and resultant willingness to engage in the study. Secondly to access what Terre Blanche et al (2006:49) refer to as “information – rich cases” which they describe as being either “typical”, “critical” or “extreme cases”. Typical cases are those, which are commonplace, extreme cases involve wide ranging differences and critical cases are theoretically significant ones.

In the researcher’s opinion the schools in question can be regarded as examples of extreme cases. Four schools, namely two high schools and two primary schools were what the Gauteng Department of Education categorizes as ‘ex township schools’. The remaining two high schools are described by that department as ‘ex model C schools’. As the name suggests ‘ex township schools’ are located in previously disadvantaged communities, while ‘ex model c schools’ are located in the more affluent ones. However there are also significant differences between the ‘ex township schools’ selected. Two are part of an established and fairly well resourced community in terms of a large clinic, police station, library, shopping centers, municipal service offices and welfare

organizations etc. The other two schools are situated in areas where the community resources are shared with adjacent geographic areas and are located kilometers away.

Similarly the two ‘ex model C schools’ were also characterized by diversity. One can be described as a typical suburban school with a greater emphasis on academic as opposed to sporting achievements. The other school while also renowned for its academic achievements has a separate sports department with a departmental head and coaches who specialize in the theoretical and practical aspects of a variety of sporting codes. Learners are enrolled in this

9 school from all over the East and Far East Rand to prepare them for a professional sporting career and sports bursaries at universities.

1.5.2.2 Selection of Participants The choice of a sample of 10 sports coaches and 63 adolescents from the six schools was influenced by non-probability and convenience sampling techniques in qualitative research practices. Purposive sampling was implemented with the selection of participants being influenced by certain parameters namely that they had to be between 13 and 18 years of age, play coached sport at least twice a month and be able to converse in English or Afrikaans, the languages spoken by the researcher to obviate the need for an interpreter. These criteria would also serve to promote homogeneity among the participants, as by perceiving one another as “fundamentally similar, they will spend less time explaining themselves to each other and more time discussing the issues at hand”. (De Vos et al 2002: 311)

The latter, namely convenience sampling, was used to select the specific participants. The various school principals, from whom permission to undertake the study was sought, identified the coaches. One school identified three coaches, two schools two coaches each and the remaining four schools one each which makes up the total of the ten coaches. The coaches were then asked by the researcher to identify not less than six and not more than 12 players from teams, which they coached and who fell within the parameters, described in the previous paragraph. The researcher was guided in the choice of these numbers by the literature pertaining to focus group. Authors such as De Vos et al (2002) and Terre Blanche et al (2006) suggest that the ideal number of participants range from between 6 to 10 and 6 to 12 persons respectively. These numbers are viewed as “striking a balance between having enough people to generate a discussion but not having so many people that some feel crowded out”. (De Vos et al 2002:311)

10 Seven coaches out of the ten coaches subsequently nominated between 7 and 11 players each and the total number amounted to 63 players. At the one ‘ex township school’ where the playing of sport was limited as a result of inadequate facilities the coach selected adolescents who played sport in the community or for external clubs. In practice one focus group was held at five schools and two focus groups at one school thus making seven focus groups in total.

1.5.3 Research instrumentation 1.5.3.1 Interview schedules and focus group questions Individual interviews were used in the case of the sports coaches employed at 4 high schools and 2 primary schools. Focus groups were conducted with adolescents at the same schools. Separate interview schedules were used with the coaches and adolescents and copies of the research tools are set out in annexure one. Semi structured questions, which covered the types of social support referred to in the literature were compiled and the same questions were put to both groups of participants. The questions related to the frequency of contact between the two groups; the nature of guidance offered by coaches and experienced by adolescents; the value of sport; competitive sport and pressure and the impact of sport on social problems. To determine the emotional content of the relationship between coaches and adolescents, the former were asked directly to describe the nature of the relationship whereas the latter were ask to explain what sort of issues they discussed with their coaches.

The decision to use the focus group method with adolescents was influenced by my experience in the pre test phase of the initial research topic, when three adolescents from township communities were interviewed individually at their homes and were found not communicate freely in a one to one situation. In order to overcome the discomfort the researcher had observed, the focus group method was decided upon as a means of still being able to obtain

11 multiple points of view from the children but in a “permissive, non – threatening environment” where “people may be more….likely to self disclose or share personal experiences” (Greef in de Vos 2002: 306-307). In terms of Greef’s suggestion that saturation level as regards information is usually reached after four groups, arrangements were made with one school to interview the same group of nine children (all boys selected from grades 9-11 by one of the teacher responsible for sport management) once a week for four weeks for an hour at a time. However in practice although appointments for focus group sessions were confirmed prior to each session by the researcher, learners were often no available or the number so reduced that sessions had to be rescheduled. Ultimately only two sessions were conducted and the researcher evaluated that at least third was necessary to explore new themes raised in the last session. This was however not possible due to the school not being able to make the learners available due to other commitments.

For practical purposes the researcher then decided to conduct a single focus group interview with more groups of children. Since the literature review had linked mentoring to positive outcomes with both problem and normative adolescent behavior, the researcher decided to involve more schools including those in communities not characterized by social problems. In total the new sample included learners from four high schools, two of which were ‘ex model c schools’ and two ‘ex township schools’ together with 2 primary ‘ex township schools.’

1.5.3.2 Pre-testing the research tools The pre testing noted in the previous paragraph referred to the initial research topic of ‘An exploration of how sport and social work interventions could be combined in a development program for youth’. No formal pre testing was undertaken after this topic was refined due to the practical difficulties experienced by the researcher to gain access to children as indicated in the previous section under

12 1.5.3.1.Certain lessons were however learnt from the two focus groups which were conducted. No structured questions had been used and the adolescents had focused mainly on the lack of support they considered they had received from the school and teachers in enabling them to become professional players. They perceived the researcher’s role as to intercede with the school principal on their behalf and rectify the situation. This was the reason for the decision to use an interview guide comprising semi-structured questions based on the research topic.

1.5.4

Data collection Interviewing methods such as the one –to – one interview and the focus group are according to de Vos et al (2002) the major means of data collection in qualitative research. Kvale (as quoted by de Vos et al 2002:292) observes that this is due to their facilitation of “attempts to understand the world from the participant’s point of view, to unfold the meaning of peoples’ experiences”. The information in the research study was collected by means of single individual interviews with the coaches and one focus group session with seven different groups of adolescents. Coaches and adolescents from the same school were involved and a total of six schools participated in the research. In five schools one focus group per school was conducted and in the remaining school two separate focus groups, one with girls and one with boys were undertaken as the concerned coaches each identified a group of players. The researcher negotiated with the schools in advance to allow the learners to be absent from lessons for up to 90 minutes. This was to ensure that the subject matter could be

discussed during this single contact, allow time to physically seat the group in a manner conducive to discussion, test the recording equipment while also taking cognisance of the period of time adolescents could effectively maintain concentration. All the interviews took place at the schools to which the coaches and adolescents were attached and all but one focus group took place during school time. The one high school which insisted that the group be interviewed after school due to lesson time lost during a teacher’s strike did assemble the adolescents together in a classroom for the researcher to interview.

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The interview guide described by Rubin and Babbie (1993) was used to list the topics and issues to be covered while at the same time trying to retain the conversational nature of the interview and the freedom to probe responses. The topics were informed by the types of social support, namely cognitive guidance, emotional support, sponsorship, tangible assistance, adult supervision, social participation and feedback, identified by the literature study. This is discussed in detail in Chapter 3. With the permission of the school, and the individual participants, both coaches and adolescents, the interviews were tape recorded while the researcher also took notes. In order for the note taking not to be disruptive it was used as a feature to reaffirm and reflect back statements made by the group. There was one notable exception where only notes were taken as the chairs in a classroom venue were bolted to the floor, could therefore not be arranged and the group was too wide spread for the tape recorder to adequately record the sound.

1.5.5 Data analysis Responses to the open-ended questions were analysed using thematic content analysis. The steps identified by Tesch (in Creswell 1994) were used in terms of the separate analysis of the tape recorded group and individual interviews namely by • Obtaining a sense of the whole by reading through all the interview transcripts and noting down any ideas which spontaneously came to mind. • Reading individual transcripts to discern the underlying meaning. • Listing topics identified as an outcome of the previous step. • Clustering together similar topics including highlighting those that could be described as major and unique topics as well as those considered to be leftovers. In regard to the latter the researcher added a heading to each transcript entitled ‘General Observations’. • Translation of the topics into themes and adding and consolidating them where necessary.

14 The researcher thereafter compared these themes to the different types of social support which had been identified in the literature study. The results were then interpreted in a descriptive narrative including making reference to similar or contradictory findings in the literature.

1.6 Ethical considerations A formal request to undertake the research, specifying the topic, the participants the researcher wished to interview in terms of the sample criteria, the expected time frame for conducting interviews and focus groups, was made in writing to the six schools. This was followed up by a personal interview with the school principal during which verbal consent to undertake the research on the school premises was given and the researcher was referred to specific teachers who coached sport with whom to make further practical arrangements. The parameters for selection of the participants were discussed with the identified coaches and the issue of voluntary participation was stressed. As adolescent participants were nominated by the coaches, prior to the commencement of each focus group the adolescents were briefed in user-friendly language on the researchers credentials, the purpose and procedures of the study, their role as co researchers, the time commitment involved, the voluntary nature of participation and the fact that they could refuse to participate or could withdraw from the study at any time without any negative consequences. In addition the confidential nature of the research report was emphasized and it was explained it that no names or identifying details would be included in the final report. Permission to tape the interviews and focus groups as well as to take notes during the sessions was requested and assented to by the participants. Finally participants and

school principals were also informed that at the conclusion of the project, a summary of the research findings would be made available on request.

1.7 Limitations The non-probability purposive nature of the sample precludes generalization of the findings to the broader South African population. Another limitation could be in terms of what Terre Blanche et al (2006:49) refer to as findings which can “help to understand other contexts or groups similar to those studied”. The participating schools are not equally provisioned as regards sports facilities and participants were not therefore exposed to similar coaching experiences.

15 However, as already discussed earlier in this chapter, participating adolescents from the one school which was the most severely compromised in this regard played coached sport regularly at community clubs.

1.8 Presentation of contents The research study is presented in 7 chapters as follows. Chapter 1 The general introduction, which includes rationale for the study, goals and objectives of the study, tentative research methodology and clarification of the concepts used in the study. The limitations of the study are also presented. Chapter 2 Resources in social work are set out in general. The role of significant others as resources when they take on a mentoring role in the lives of adolescents is considered in terms of a literature study. Chapter 3 The literature regarding mentoring, especially that of the natural mentor is explored in more detail. Chapter 4 Theoretical foundations of the study, where the results of the literature review in terms of resilience are summarized. Chapter 5 The research methodology is discussed in terms of the research design, data collection methods, sampling procedures and data analysis. The date gathered is interpreted, the demographic characteristics of the sample are presented, and thereafter the results. Chapter 6 The relevance of the data and the findings for social work with youth is discussed Chapter 7 Interpretations, conclusions and recommendations for the study are dealt with.

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Chapter 2 Resources in Social Work Services to Adolescents
Introduction This chapter reviews the resource management function of the social worker and asserts that it is critical that resources which are used or created provide social support to clients. A detailed exposition of these social support functions as well as the obstacles which may prevent clients from accessing them is provided. The supportive function of non-parental adults during adolescence is discussed. Research studies are quoted which suggest that when they take on a mentoring role with the adolescent they contribute to the fulfillment of his or her developmental needs and ease the transition to adulthood.

2.1 Resources from a Social Work Perspective Miley, O’ Melia and Du Bois (2004) posit that generalist social work practice can be viewed in terms of three related functions namely consultancy, resource management and education which operate at the various system levels namely that of the individual, family, formal group/ organization and community/ society. This section of the chapter highlights the resource management function which Miley et al (2004:17) describe as when “social workers stimulate exchanges with resources that the client systems already use to some extent, access available resources that client systems are not using, and develop resources that are not currently available”.

Linking clients to resources appropriate to their particular problem, while taking cognizance of their individual strengths is viewed as an integral part of social work practice by many writers. Miley et al (2004:240) describe generalist social workers as having a dual responsibility to “simultaneously elicit information about what brings clients to them while constantly searching to discover the resources available to lead clients towards solutions”. They refer to a ‘companion process’ of identifying client strengths but stress that “clients are not alone in mustering their capabilities to meet their challenges. They also have the resources of their social and physical environments.”

17 This is congruent with Egan (1998) and Berger, McBreen and Rifkin’s (1996) description of social work practice. Egan (1998) views one of the principal goals of the helping process of social work as to “help clients manage their problems in living more effectively and develop unused or underused opportunities more fully”. (Egan1998:7) His reference to an opportunity development process correlates with what Miley et al (2004) describe as the resource management function of the social worker. Whereas Miley et al (2004) refer to client strengths; Egan (1998) speaks of internal resources and assets for which the helper should search while clients tell their stories. He points out that only “incompetent helpers concentrate on client’s deficits whereas skilled helpers are quick to spot client resources, whether used, unused or even abused. These resources can become the building blocks for the future”. (Egan1998: 28)

Berger et al (1996:191) describe social work practice as one which “supports his (the client’s)(my brackets) efforts at empowering himself and attaining his goals by building on strengths, developing resources, overcoming obstacles, and working in partnership towards change for the client’s benefit at multiple system levels”. The concept of overcoming obstacles as part of the resource development process is echoed by Gambrill (2006:505) who urges the review of both obstacles and resources as a means for closing the gap between “a current and a desired situation” or at least to determine the potential for closing this gap or coming as close as possible to doing so.

Linking clients to resources can be implemented by providing them with information pertaining to available programs and services, supporting them to access services to which they are entitled especially amidst bureaucratic red tape or implementing the educational function of the social worker. This is however only a partial explanation of the resource management task of the social worker. According to Miley et al (2004), the most critical aspect, is the collaborative alliances which social workers facilitate between clients and resources. These authors suggest various types of alliances, which are located at the various system levels namely • Facilitation of group work with clients who share interests or issues.

18 • Strengthening support networks which occur naturally in client’ environment such as relationships within the family, with friends, work colleagues as well as persons they associate with at churches, schools or clubs. • Enabling partnerships between clients and other service providers. • Professional alliances between social workers of the same agency. • Coalitions between different agencies. • Agency alliances with community institutions such as churches and schools.

Gambrill (2006) provides the following guidelines, which social workers can utilize to address the lack of resources by creating new services or improving existing ones. • Consider both environmental and personal characteristics of clients- for example the lack of social skills on the part of clients in initiating a conversation and in behavior patterns such as aggression or anxiety. Other aspects to be considered relate to difficulty in accessing resources- e.g. little time to make friends, caretakers who are overburdened, and opportunities for social exchanges, which are limited in neighbourhoods. In addition clients might have little social and economic capital to empower them to negotiate with potential resources. • Adopt a strengths based approach towards clients. • Involve significant others. That is persons who have ongoing relationship with the client such as teachers, parents and residential staff. • Rearrange the physical environment in terms of providing locations, which increase opportunities for positive social exchanges. Examples given include lobbying for space for recreation purposes. • Be aware of community resources as well as unmet needs and involve other professionals as well as the community to enhance coordination of existing services as well as to create new services. • Use self help and support groups. • Amend restrictive agency policies and procedures that limit access to resources. These include decisions in terms of eligibility criteria, physical access in terms of lack of transportation, ineffective marketing of the service and lengthy and unclear application forms.

19 • Search for options for increasing social and economic opportunities on various levels such as within the sphere of the organisation, community, legislative and policy.

According to Kemp, Whittaker Tracey (quoted by Miley et al 2004: 351) the essence of any resource is that it should also provide the client with social support, which occurs when “emotional encouragement concrete assistance or tangible aid and advice and information” is provided. The next section discusses the concept of social support.

2.2 Social Support 2.2.1 Social Support and Social Networks Authors such as Gambrill (2006), Miley et al (2004) and Egan (1998) refer to social support as existing within the context of social networks. Gambrill (2006) defines social networks as comprising people with whom an individual interacts and within which interactions between people or social exchanges take place. In her opinion a system of social support is only engendered when social exchanges in social networks offer some resource such as emotional support or material aid. This resonates with that of a resource defined by Kemp et al (quoted by Miley et al 2004) in the previous paragraph. Gambrill (2006:511) refers to the valued outcomes of social support in terms of providing “guidelines for fulfilling roles, and opportunities for nurturance and reassurance of own worth......social integration (feeling part of a valued group) and attachment to others”.

Miley et al (2004) suggest that social support networks can play a significant and complementary role in professional social service delivery in the search for new resources. Egan (1998:9) also stresses the importance of social support networks and quotes two strategies in this regard namely “helping clients to mobilize or increase support from existing social networks and grafting new ties onto impoverished social networks”. He also suggests that by developing social networks which both support and challenge the client; they are enabled “to continue to manage their lives more effectively after the formal period of helping is over.” (Egan1998: 9) Egan suggests that this can be achieved through significant others

20 providing feedback which either confirms to the client that he is on the right track or is corrective in the sense that he needs to get back on course. He also sets out how such feedback should be given stressing that it should be done in a caring manner; focus on client behaviour and not personality; not be overwhelming in extent at any one time; invite client participation and discussion regarding alternative ways of tackling the problem situation.

Table 2.1 sets out Miley et al’s (2004:351) understanding of the networks, which can be utilized by social workers and is reproduced from this work. Table 2.1: Social Support Networks
Informal Systems Spouses Partners Children Parents Siblings Extended Family Friends Neighbors Classmates o- workers Membership Systems Churches and synagogues Informal social clubs Clubs Associations Civic organizations Fraternities and sororities Athletic teams Parent teacher associations Unions Fraternal organizations Recreational memberships Art and Music groups Hangouts (bars, the mall, supper clubs) Mutual aid groups and Professional Systems Social workers Mental health practitioners Educators Clergy Lawyers Doctors and nurses Dieticians Speech therapists Psychologists social Elected officials

Like Miley et al (2004), Gambrill (2006) and Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Behrendt (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) also highlight sources of social support.
Gambrill (2006) views these as ranging from voluntary associations to close relationships with friends, also including neighbours, relatives and what she describes as community caretakers such as bartenders, waitresses and hairdressers. Zimmerman et al in (Dubois
and

21 Karcher 2005:145) cite “ family members, teachers, coaches, clergy, peers, neighbours, and other members of the community.... as potential sources of social support outside the family”. Egan (1998) espouses an even wider view of what he calls informal helpers whom he refers to as “ abound (ing)(my brackets) in the social settings of life” and “all who try to help relatives, friends, and strangers...to come to grips with problems in living”. (Egan 1998:4)

2.2.2 Types of social support Zimmerman et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005:145) describe social

support as including firstly emotional support which they characterize in terms of “empathy, love, trust and caring”; secondly “instrumental support” examples of which are concrete or tangible assistance as well as services; thirdly cognitive guidance which encapsulates providing information and guidance and lastly support geared towards evaluation or appraisal.

A more comprehensive description of social support is provided by Barrera and Ainlay (1983:134) who developed a typology of social support, following a literature review and the identification of various forms of support by 370 psychology students, which they also later reviewed. Barrera and Bonds (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) examine social support within the context of youth mentoring and a combination of the information from these two sources is reflected in the table below. Table 2.2: Typology of social support
Social Support Function Explanation of Function

Material Aid also referred to as Concrete Aid, Tangible Provision of material objects Support and Instrumental Support such as money and goods Physical Assistance Sharing tasks Nondirective Support Listening, expressions of caring, being with a person in time of need Directive Guidance also referred to as Problem Giving advice, guidance, Solving, Cognitive Guidance and Appraisal information, instruction, teaching skills and giving feedback Social Participation Sharing fun and relaxing activities, socializing

22 2.3 Obstacles to social support Gambrill (2006) gives particular attention to the obstacles which would hinder significant others from becoming an effective resource and a form of social support to clients. The importance of significant others for Gambrill lies in their ability to be mediators of change for clients. She argues that the efficacy of significant others in client’s social networks to be a mediators of change is dependent on their having “ access to reinforcers of value to clients, as well as the motivation, knowledge, skills and opportunities to offer them contingently and consistently”. (Gambrill 2006:512)

Gambrill (2006) defines the term positive reinforcer as “an event that, when presented contingent on a behavior increases the future likelihood of that behavior”. (Gambrill 2006:165) In addition she differentiates between primary reinforcers such as food which have no earlier learning history as opposed to conditioned or secondary ones. The latter are events, which are regularly preceded by contact with other positive reinforcers or are linked with the removal of events, which could be described as negative. Gambrill (2006) suggests that some positive reinforcers such as money and approval become generalized reinforcers in the sense that they are able to stimulate a range of behaviors. Despite this she cautions significant others to be aware that reinforcers are often related to a specific individual and specific circumstances, hence it is critical to draw up a reinforcer profile for each client. To locate appropriate reinforcers, Gambrill (2006) advocates observation of client behaviour, asking clients and significant others, allowing people to sample a potential reinforcer, offering variations on reinforcers, and using a schedule for persons to rate items in terms of how pleasurable they find them.

When choosing a reinforcer Gambrill (2006) points out that behaviour with a high rate of probability can be used in tandem with those with a low rate. She cites the example that if drinking a cup of coffee is more likely than writing a case report then you can make drinking coffee contingent on completing a portion of the report. In addition that since many high probability behaviours posited by this author include social exchanges such as walking with someone, playing basket ball, visiting friends the scene is set for the development of a social support system - her definition highlighted earlier in this chapter stressed

23 the linkages between social exchanges and social support. Finally Gambrill (2006) identifies different types of reinforcers, which the researcher has summarized in tabular form. Table 2. 3: Different types of reinforcers
Type of Examples of Type Advantages of Reinforcer Reinforcer of Reinforcer
Social Approval through physical contact such as hugs or standing in close proximity to someone. Verbal statements of approval or non verbal cues such as smiling, laughing and shared activities. E.g. bike riding, going to movies, and playing a game. Do not take much time to provide and are part of the natural environment

Disadvantages Reinforcer
None

of

Activity orientated

Edible reinforcers

E.g. cake

The same advantages as social reinforcers in terms of being readily available. Can be used to establish or maintain behaviour. Behaviour with a high probability can be used as a reward for the completion of a task that is less motivating to the recipient. Valuable when social approval does not function as a reinforcer.

More time consuming as access to equipment or a geographic location needs to be arranged. More distracting which could lead to the preclusion of other behaviours. Reach satiation point. Can distract people from engaging in desired behaviours if they are used in the longer term.

Tangible\mat erial items

E.g. books and toysusually involves participating in an activity

Similar to that of activity reinforcers in terms of using high probability behaviours as rewards for those with lower probability.

Disadvantages in respect of activity reinforcers therefore apply here

Information feedback comprises two components namely evaluative (good bad\approval) and information re progress. Self reinforcers

Time spent in an activity, problems correctly completed

Encourage behaviour such approaching a feared object.

as

Can only be used when performance criteria are clear.

E.g. positive statements.

self-

They are contingent on the successful achievement of a task.

None.

General reinforcers

Money, approval and tokens

Over emphasis on approval could have negative social consequences.

Facilitate access to variety of activities.

a

24 2.3 Social support during adolescence Hamilton and Darling (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) suggest that relationships between adults and youth take on a new meaning during adolescence. In their review of literature on adolescents and their interpersonal relationships with significant others in their social networks, these authors noted that unrelated adults became progressively more important to youth in their later adolescent years and that they, like parents, have a developmental impact on the lives of adolescents. These authors suggest that several factors contribute towards this situation. Firstly that the adolescent wishes to form an identity separate from his parents, which makes him more open to the influence of other adults. Secondly the adolescent attaches value to the expanded social networks, which are available to him as he broadens his environment and this includes the adults in them. Thirdly, that this experience allows the adolescent access to different knowledge and skills. Fourthly involvement in another relationship with an adult paves the way for the adolescent’s own transition to adulthood. Hamilton and Darling (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) argue that a precondition to unrelated adults contributing to the development of the adolescent is when they take on a mentoring role with the adolescent as only then do they “provide both the ideals that are necessary for identity formation and the skills that allow those ideals to be realized. Through their very existence, they also provide proof that a transition to adult hood can be made”. (Hamilton and Darling in Hurrelmann& Hamilton 1996:204).

Research undertaken by Bo (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) confirms the significance of unrelated adults to adolescents referred to by Hamilton and Darling (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton). In this study the adolescents “appreciated contact and exchange with teachers, leaders, coaches, neighbours, salespeople at local stores and so forth” in addition to that with their parents. (Bo in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996:124).

A critical facet in the process of linking clients to the appropriate resource, which was contained in the opening sentence of this chapter, is that the social worker must be knowledgeable about the developmental needs of the client concerned and the ability of the identified resource to fulfill them. Berger et al (1996:23) point out that the social worker is only able to help the client effectively “when

25 the many dimensions of the client’s situation are understood, considered and addressed”. This author describes these dimensions as biological, psychological, socio structural and cultural factors. Similarly Miley et al (2004:25) refer to social work requiring “extensive knowledge about the functioning of many types of human systems… (to) (my brackets) attend to the well-being of individuals”.

Conclusion In this chapter the resource management function of the social worker is described as being a threefold one. Firstly to facilitate the client’s more effective use of resources with which he or she is already in contact. Secondly referring the client to alternative available resources and thirdly to create new resources where appropriate ones do not exist. The essence of any resource is viewed as its ability to provide social support in the form of emotional advocacy, material assistance and informative guidance. Sources of such social support are highlighted as

occurring naturally within the social networks, whether informal, as a consequence of membership or professional systems, with which clients engage. Research studies are cited which suggest that particularly during adolescence, with the search for a separate identity, youth become involved in relationships with

unrelated adults present in their social networks who help to fulfill their need for social support. The suggestion that these adults do so by taking on a mentoring role is discussed in detail in the next chapter.

26

Chapter 3 Mentors and Their Roles
Introduction This chapter examines various definitions of mentoring and the positive impact being exposed to a mentor has on the developmental needs of adolescents’ .In particular the role of the natural mentor is highlighted in the context of various research studies. The recurring types of social support which the literature associates with mentoring are also discussed.

3.1 Definition of Mentoring DuBois and Karcher (2005:3) suggest an operational definition of youth mentoring in terms of the recurring themes they found in the literature, which suggested consensus in terms of the following core elements. Firstly, the mentor is someone with greater experience or wisdom than the mentee. Secondly, the mentor offers guidance or instruction that is intended to facilitate the growth and development of the mentee. Thirdly there is an emotional bond between the mentor and mentee, a hallmark of which is a sense of trust.This applies equally to mentors who occur naturally in social networks as well as to those who are part of formal programs as is evident in the definition of a natural mentor provided by Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Behrendt (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:143) as “ non parental adults, such as extended family members, teachers or neighbours, from whom a young person receives support and guidance as a result of a relationship developed without the help of a program”. Both DuBois and Karcher (2005) and Zimmerman et al (in DuBois and Karcher 2005)stress the guidance and emotional support role of the mentor.

Mentoring typically implies a one on one relationship between an adult and a younger person, yet Sipe (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:71) refers to multiple types of mentoring distinguished by Philip and Henry. The latter conducted individual and group interviews with 150 adolescents aged between 13 to 18 years who had been recruited through youth organisations and self help groups. From descriptions given by the youth, these authors distinguished 5 different

27 types of mentoring. These included “classic mentoring” which fits the concept of the typical mentoring relationship described above. The other four types are: • • • • Individual- team mentoring which involves one or more adults providing support to a group of youth; Friend to friend mentoring described as best friends providing each other with mutual support; Peer group mentoring, which involves a group of youth supporting each other; Long- term mentoring provided by risk taking adults…… (who)(my brackets) may not conform ……. to the definition of a good role model.

Other authors such as Delgardo (2000) and Sipe (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) use the term ‘group mentoring’ instead of that of ‘individual team mentoring’ noted in the above quotation. The research, which explores the relationship between the sports coach and the team of players, would thus be congruent with these two terms.

3.2 Mentoring and its impact on the Developmental Needs of Adolescents Several authors (for example Gottlieb and Sylvester in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996; Rhodes quoted by Barrera and Bonds in DuBois and Karcher 2005; Hirsch and Wong in DuBois and Karcher 2005; Darling in DuBois and Karcher 2005; Rhodes in DuBois and Karcher 2005; Rhodes, Spencer, Keller, Liang and Noam 2006; Mahoney, Larson, Eccles and Lord 2005), link the functions of the mentor with specific outcomes regarding the adolescent’s developmental needs while at the same time expanding on the types of social support provided. Each author’s viewpoint is discussed separately in the ensuing paragraphs.

Gottlieb and Sylvester (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) undertook a study with youth who were asked to describe the attributes of unrelated adults with whom they had developed a personal relationship. Although the word mentor is not used the descriptions given of these adults are congruent with the types of social support the literature suggests are offered by mentors. Firstly social participation in that these adults, such as coaches and teachers, had been

28 involved in extracurricular activities over a period of time with the youth and therefore knew them personally. These were the adults to whom the youth spoke about personal matters. Secondly direct guidance with the adults being described as persons who took the youth’s problems more seriously and were better able to help them than their peers who were experiencing similar problems. Thirdly emotional support as the adults • • • Disclosed something of their personal life to youth. Took the first steps in making the relationship a more personal one. Did not judge the youth’s attitude or actions but rather validated their perspectives of life. These adults did not criticize their use of language even if this involved swearing and youth saw this as an indication that they were being treated as adults. • Did not interact with other person’s in the youth’s network and were seen as unprejudiced because they were not part of conflict youth experienced within own network. These adults helped youth to make more decisions regarding people in their network and to evaluate their .relationships with them. • Took youth into their confidence and shared aspects of their own life with them.

Like Gottlieb and Sylvester (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) Mahoney, Larson, Eccles and Lord (2005) do not specifically refer to the involvement of a mentor, however their definition of organised activities is congruent with the social support functions of such a person. They refer to activities that include sports, music, hobby and social clubs, religious and service orientated activities, which are • • • • • • Voluntary in nature. Have regular, planned meetings. Have expectations that are developmentally based as well as rules for those that participate in the activity. Supervision and guidance by the involved adults. Organised so as to develop specific skills and achieve goals. Activities frequently involve challenges and become more complex as participants’ skills increase.

29 • Promote positive development of participants.

In two successive studies by Rhodes and her associates with 129 African American teenage mothers during 1992 and 54 Latino adolescent mothers during 1994(as quoted by Barrera and Bonds in DuBois and Karcher 2005) natural mentors had a positive effect on their feelings of depression as well as enhancing the quality of their relationships and ability to access social support. The types of support accessed by the teenagers in the two studies are set out in the following graph.

Figure 3.1 Social support accessed by teenage mothers
Frequency in percentages
100.00% 80.00% 60.00% 40.00% 20.00% 0.00%

African AmericanTeenagers Latino adolescent mothers

Cognitive

Types of social support

Hirsch and Wong (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:366) describe adult mentoring behavior in terms of “emotional support, guidance\teaching and

sponsorship\advocacy.” These authors include having fun with the youth and being a friend as part of emotional support whereas others authors (e.g. Barrera and Bonds in DuBois and Karcher 2005 referring to research byRhodes) include these under the mentoring function of social participation. Hirsch and Wong (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:366) suggest that emotional support “may enable the youth to open up to an adult facilitating mental health and an enhanced receptivity to the adult’s involvement in the youth’s life and goal directed activities.” Guidance or teaching, according to these authors refers to instruction by the mentor as well as role modeling which they view as facilitating cognitive development, task accomplishment and promoting effective problem solving.

Social Participation

Tangible Assistance

Emotional

Positive Feedback

30 The outcome of sponsorship or advocacy according to Hirsch and Wong (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:366) is the provision of “important connections (social capital) to significant adults who can help (the mentee) to obtain positions or experience that promote their development”.

Darling (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:183) suggests that shared activities, which resonates with the concept of social participation described in the above paragraph, provide opportunities for youth to be in control, act independently, “ identity exploration and skill building as well as both social differentiation and integration”. In addition that when the activity requires learning certain cognitive and social skills, these skills are transferred to other areas of the adolescents life such as choices of school subjects or a career and endure even after the mentoring relationship has been terminated. In addition that when such activities took place within the school environment this was associated with positive outcomes such as “greater school bonding, lower levels of dropout and higher achievement….and some of these benefits were mediated by the supportive relationships youth had with activity leaders”.( Darling in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 178)

Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:31) proposes a model of youth mentoring, which “assumes that mentoring relationships can promote positive outcomes for youth through a range of processes specifically those that foster social – emotional, cognitive and identity development.” Firstly as regards social and emotional development she suggests that when mentors provide support and model caring their relationship with youth this becomes a “corrective experience” for those who had a poor relationship with their parents. This in turn is assumed to generalize to other situations where youth will also be able to interact positively with others. In addition mentors provide a sounding board for youth to express their emotions and in particular to understand those of a negative nature. Mentors who display positive emotions in difficult situations are posited to “help mentees to broaden and build their personal resources and learn to approach negative experiences as opportunities for intimacy and learning”. (Rhodes in DuBois and Karcher 2005:33) Alternatively, at the very least, according to Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005), mentors will assist youth to improve the way they handle the tensions in relationships and other conflicts that can

31 characterize adolescence. In a later article Rhodes, writing with Spencer, Keller, Liang and Noam, (2006:692) adds another aspect of social support under the domain of social and emotional development namely companionship which they describe as “opportunities for fun and escape from daily stresses” which includes “recreational interactions with adults”- my italics. This adds credibility to the viability of sports coaches becoming mentors for adolescents, which is the contention of the research.

Secondly, Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) discusses cognitive development, which she views as being stimulated in the youth by the challenging stance adopted by the mentor. Expected outcomes would be the acquisition and refinement of thinking skills by the adolescent, which in turn promote abstract thinking and monitoring of self. This author suggests that this in turn provides the impetus for adolescents to “air sensitive issues and for mentors to transmit adult values, advice and perspectives”.(Rhodes in DuBois and Karcher 2005:34) In another article Spencer and Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) posit that even conversations (i.e. not the challenging stance referred to earlier) between mentors and the youth which are characterized by listening, understanding and respect provide them with opportunities to think critically, be in touch with their feelings and express themselves more comprehensively. They view this as critical as adolescents often do not want to disclose their feelings to their parents as they strive for independence. Spencer and Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) quote studies where the youth’s feeling of closeness with teachers, natural and assigned mentors have resulted in better academic performance.

Under the domain of cognitive development Rhodes et al (2006:694) include situations where the mentor “foster(s) (my brackets) the development of knowledge and skills that require practice and instruction…… (but)(my brackets) regardless of the particular activity chosen, a mentor can approach interactions with the intension of exploiting ‘teachable moments”. In its broadest sense this can be viewed as including instruction in the technical skills of a particular sport by a coach whereas knowledge in the same context could apply to the rules of the game and behavior expected by players. Gano-Overway (1999:4) uses the term ‘teachable moments’ in his description of the sports coach as one whose function it is to teach moral principles and be a positive role model by looking for

32 “teachable moments when moral dilemmas arise on the floor or in practice in order to guide young athletes.”

Thirdly identity development which Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:34) refers to as a “process in which people internalize the attitudes, behaviors and traits of individual they wish to emulate”. Identification with mentors whom they perceive to be role models may according to this author result in shifts in the way adolescents view their identity as well as other social roles. In addition she quotes studies, which suggest that exposure to new experiences and opportunities also facilitate the development of an identity. This occurs when the mentor engages in a sponsorship\ advocacy role linking adolescents to resources. Finally when activities provide outlets to discover and develop talents and abilities or expose youth to high achieving peers this milieu impacts on the formation of identity.

Rhodes et al (2006) argue that the impact mentoring will have on youth development is mediated by three factors namely the adolescent’s previous relationships, the quality of the particular relationship and the duration of the relationship. In the first instance the adolescent’s relationship with his parents is viewed as influencing what he desires from the mentor. If this is a good one, then skills acquisition and a role model may be more critical than the fulfillment of emotional needs as is the case when the parental relationship is poor. Secondly the ideal qualities of the relationship are described as being one of caring which implies “trust, empathy, authenticity, mutual respect, sensitivity and attunement”. (Rhodes et al 2006:696) Finally Rhodes et al (2006) suggests that the relationship needs time to evolve and unfold naturally pointing out that when relationships are terminated prematurely this can do damage to a child’s self concept.

3.3 Research Studies With Regard to Natural Mentors According to Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Behrendt, (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) studies carried out in America indicate that considerably more adults identify mentoring youth informally than do so through formal mentoring programs like Big Brothers and Big Sisters. They quote a survey undertaken by the Time Warner Foundation during 2002 and a Commonwealth Survey, which respectively reported that 68% and 83% of adults mentored informally against the 31 % and 17 % who did so formally. This is confirmed by Dubois and

33 Silverthorn (2005) who refer to a national representative sample of adults studied by MENTOR\ National Mentoring Partnership Mentoring in America during 2002 who reported that 69% of natural mentors occurred in youth’s existing social networks. One of the critical areas presence of such mentors was school athletics. identified by youth regarding the

However despite the preponderance of natural mentors who exist, perusal of the literature indicated far fewer studies in this regard, as compared to those having reference to formal mentoring programs. The studies of natural mentors, which follow, indicated a number of common trends, firstly confirmation that adolescents do indeed identify non parental adults who occur naturally in their social networks and undertake the supportive functions attributed to mentors. For example Sanchez, Espaza, and Colon (2008) identified 54% of respondents as having a natural mentor, Zimmerman Bingenheimer, and Notaro (2002) 53.8% and Beam, Chen, and Greenberger (2002) 80%. Secondly that a varying percentage of such adults can be described as non kin or outside the extended family- for example Sanchez et al (2008) found that 25% were friends, teachers and pastors; Zimmerman et al (2002) that 10% were professionals such as a teacher, coach, and counselors and ministers of religion; DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) 25% in what they categorized as the informal group which comprised the sports coach, an employer, neighbor or friend’s parents and 35% were professional such as teachers, social workers, doctors and ministers of religion. Thirdly that many mentors had a mediating impact on problem behavior, which included chemical abuse, truancy and non-violent acting out behavior. An in depth discussion of individual studies follows.

3.3.1 Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Notaro (2002) researched the effects that having natural mentors had on urban youth. Their theoretical base was grounded in resiliency theory in terms of two models, namely the compensatory and protective factor models. They describe the

compensatory model as one which operates in circumstances where the risk factor is already present by counteracting its effects. In the protective factor model certain factors described as “risk protective or protective mechanisms” …..“modify the relationship between risks and outcomes.” (Zimmerman et al 2002: 223-224)

34

The focus group of their research was samples of 730 urban adolescents in their fourth year at high school .The majority of the respondents were African Americans with an almost equal split as regards gender. Data was gathered by way of direct interviews as well as a self-administered questionnaire. Participants were requested to identify an adult over 25 years of age who was not a family member and who they considered to be their mentor. Variables researched related to firstly problem behavior in terms of alcohol use, marijuana use, non-violent and violent delinquent behavior. Secondly school attitudes, which covered school efficacy, school importance and school attachment. Thirdly psychological distress which included anxiety and depression; fourthly having friends with behavior problems; fifthly how these friends would perceive the respondents if they displayed similar problems; sixthly the respondent’s assessment of the friends behavior at school and finally their friends’ attitude towards school. Other variables related to the occupation of the respondent’s parents of which the largest group was categorized as blue-collar factory workers and there was an equal spread according to race.

The results of the study can be summarized as follows: • • 53.8% of the participating adolescents reported having a natural mentor. 35.7% of these adolescents identified an extended family member as a mentor followed by 10% who identified professionals such as teachers, coaches, counselors and ministers of religion. • Those adolescents with natural mentors reported more positive attitudes towards school, lower levels of problem behavior than those without mentors but there was no relationship between psychological distress and either of these two groups. • In terms of the theoretical models discussed earlier it was found that having a mentor partially offset, or had a compensatory effect in terms of the influence of having peers with problem behavior. (Marijuana use and non-violent delinquency)

35 • • Both the compensatory and protective models of resilience were apparent in terms of school attitudes. Natural mentors also had an indirect effect on the adolescents they mentored in terms of encouraging them not to “befriend peers who engage in problem behaviors or who discourage positive school attitudes”. (Zimmerman, Bingenheimer and Notaro: 2002:238)

3.3.2 Sanchez, Esparza and Colon (2008:471) undertook a study, which examined the role of natural mentoring relationships and academic achievement at school. Academic achievement was measured in terms of grades, absenteeism and reports by learners themselves pertaining to their “educational aspirations and expectations, motivation and sense of school belonging”. The respondents were 140 urban high school learners of whom 52%were female and 48% male with an average age of 17 years. The sample was selected from learners enrolled in English and Film courses at one high school and whose academic progress ranged from those attending a remedial class to honours students. The school itself had a poor academic record with only 53% of learners completing their education, undoubtedly influenced by chronic truancy, which was described as a 20% learner absence on any particular day.

Learners identified mentors in terms of the question “Are there any individuals in your life who have more experience than you and support you and guide you? This person is someone you look up to, you trust and you feel like he\she cares about you”. (Sanchez et al 2008:473) Respondents were also required to specify their relationship with the identified mentor, the mentor’s educational level, and frequency of contact with the mentor and the type of social support provided by the mentor with regard to their education. The latter included emotional, cognitive, tangible and informational support as well as modelling behaviour with the total of the types of support offered being calculated per mentor.

36 The results of this study were as follows: • • 54% of the sample identified a mentor while 62% of this group identified one mentor; 32% two mentors and the remainder 3 mentors. The greatest number of mentors identified were family members who included siblings (32%) and extended family (43%)and the remainder (25%) were non-familial adults. Only teachers and ministers of religion are specified within this third group and the rest are simply referred to as ‘other’. • 91% of those who identified a mentor indicated that this person provided them with support regarding their education. Within this group “non- familial mentors had significantly higher educational levels than familial mentors.” (Sanchez et al 2008:475-476)

Most of the identified mentors were found to provide “a wide range” of the different types of support cited earlier, (Sanchez et al 2008:479) which in turn had a positive impact in reducing truancy, the way they felt about their school (belonging) and their motivation to do well in class. Although the learners had longer relationships with familial as opposed to non familial mentors, the higher educational levels of non familial mentors was the most decisive factor in promoting positive educational outcomes. These included higher-grade averages and learners’ greater aspirations and expectations in the educational sphere.

The only difference between learners having more than one non-familial mentor was in the area of their expectations to attain success in the school situation. Sanchez et al (2008) suggest that the reason for this is that “receiving support from multiple, important non parental adults make high expectations about education more realistic”. (Sanchez et al 2008:479)

3.3.3 DuBois and Silverthorn (2005:74) investigated the characteristics of natural mentoring relationships within a sample of 2323 youth who affirmed that during adolescence an adult “other than (their) parents or stepparents made an important difference in (their) life at any time since (they) were 14 years old” The characteristics researched included “education\ work, problem

37 behavior, psychological well being, and physical health.” • • (DuBois and

Silverthorn 2005:69) The measures of these characteristics were as follows:Education and work: “completed high school, college attendance and working 10 or more hours per week”. Problem behavior: “binge drinking in the previous 12months, drug use and smoking within the previous month, gang membership, hurting another person in a fight in the previous year”. (DuBois and Silverthorn 2005:76-77) • • Psychological well being: self-esteem, being satisfied with life, fewer symptoms of depression and the absence of suicidal thoughts. Physical health: general health and level of physical activity.

The respondents who were young adults or older adolescents, aged between18 and 26, were asked to report retrospectively and were not necessarily involved in a mentoring relationship at the time of the study. The gender breakdown was 44.7 males and 55.3 females with 63.6% of respondents being white, 22% African Americans and the remainder Hispanic, Asian Americans and Native Americans. The relationship between the mentor and mentee was divided into three different groups namely family; (excluding parents and stepparents as indicated earlier) informal e.g. a sports coach, employer, neighbor or friend’s parents and professional. The last group included teachers, social workers, doctors and ministers of religion.

The results and recommendations of the study can be summarized as follows: • In terms of the mentor role over 40% were identified by respondents as falling into the family group, almost 25% in the informal group and the remaining one third of the sample in the professional group. • Mentors in the informal and professional groups were associated with more favorable outcomes in respect of education – i.e. completing high school and physical health than mentors in the family group.

38 The authors suggest that the reason for this finding is that family members often have similar lifestyles whereas other adults can provide adolescents with more social capital. They view this as either due to their competence in different areas or the greater likelihood of their linking the mentees to appropriate outside resources in the areas of education and health. •

Mentors with an educational or other professional background, mainly teachers and guidance counselors, were more likely to increase the probability of the adolescent attending college as well as decreasing the risk of the mentee displaying problem behavior in terms of using drugs or smoking. The other problem behavior noted under this

characteristic namely binge drinking, gang membership and fighting were not significantly influenced by any of the mentor groups. • Greater closeness was evident in the family group. This characteristic was found to predict more favorable psychological well being, which was influenced by the duration and frequency of contact between the mentor and mentee.

3.3.4 Greenberger, Chen, and Beam (1998) undertook an exploratory study to ascertain who were the most important adults (VIP’s) in the lives of 201 high school learners in America; the functions these adults performed and the link between having a VIP and the learner’s psychological well being and involvement in misconduct. The average age of the respondents was 16 years and 53% were female. The sample was racially diverse with 53% being European Americans and the remainder Latino (16%), Asian American (12%) African American (11%) and of mixed ethnicity (8%). The data was obtained through questionnaires, completed by the learners themselves during a class period at school.

The functions of the VIPs were determined by a review of answers given by a 10% random sample of the learners and included: • Support in the areas of schoolwork and learning; interpersonal problems; personal development; activities and interests; as an individual and an equal.

39 • Financial support. • A person, who is a companion and fun to be with; to whom they could disclosure information of negative behavior and a role model.

Misconduct was described in terms of the frequency the students were involved in risky behavior such as driving under the influence of alcohol, substance abuse, cheating at school, aggressive actions toward persons and property and theft. Psychological status was determined by the intensity of mood on a 20-point scale. The most critical findings of the study were as follows -: • A “substantial majority” of the respondents identified a nonparental adult who played an important role in their lives-for boys this was often an older friend and for girls a grandparent. The greatest proportion of these adults (49% for boys and 53% for girls) was within the family circle followed by older friends, their parents and relatives (26% for boys and 21% for girls). Teachers at 10% and coaches at 5% were the same for both girls and boys with church representatives making up 5% of non-parental adults in the case of boys and 7% in that of girls. Neighbors and counselors only accounted for 2% of non-parental adults identified by the respondents. • As regards misconduct the perceptions of both boys and girls of the attitude of their VIPs towards risky behavior strongly predicted the outcome. In the case of boys the level of self reported misconduct as well as the different types of misconduct reported was respectively higher and more varied the younger their VIPs were. • Disapproval or sanctions pertaining to misconduct whether manifested by parents, friends or VIPs had an equal impact on incidents of problem behavior reported although sanctions from multiple sources had the greatest effect. However adolescents were “more likely to do what others do than to do what others say.” (Greenberger et al 1998:340)

40 • The frequency of displayed depressive symptoms was related to the mood of the respondent’s friends rather than that of the VIP. The warmth manifested by the VIP was only significant in cases where they were also relatives.

3.3.5. In a later study relating to adolescents and the very important non-parental adults (VIPs) in their lives Beam, Chen, and Greenberger (2002) sought to answer other questions. Firstly whether adolescents’ relationships with their VIPs are part of a natural, normative process rather than triggered by problems in their life course at a particular time. Secondly whether the nature of the relationship with VIPs differs from than with peers and parents. Thirdly whether the relationships between kin and non kin VIPs differ significantly and finally whether there are factors which distinguish VIPs rated by the adolescents as extremely important from those they rate as less important. In contrast to the previous study, the sample comprised both high school learners and their VIPs from whom data was collected in a joint interview at an informal venue following a questionnaire completed by the learners in the classroom.

As was the case in the previous study the majority of the learners (80%) indicated having a relationship with a non-parental adult, which they rated as being important. However in contrast to the 1989 study the current one found that the number of kin as opposed to non kin VIPs was almost equal, with the largest group of non kin VIPs being older friends and teachers.

In terms of the first question targeted by the current research “fewer than one in four adolescents reported that significant life events trigged the onset of the relationship”. On the contrary, the evolving of relationship was stimulated by the VIP being perceived as someone who was “fun to be around”. (Beam et al 2002:322)

Regarding the nature of the relationship (the second question posed by the researchers) this was viewed by the adolescents as being less punitive and judgmental than that with their parents while VIPs were described as providing more support, guidance, and role modeling than their peers.

41

In comparing kin and non kin VIPs (the third question) Beam et al (2002) found that while the duration of the relationship with the former was longer, the frequency of contact between the adolescent and the non kin VIP was lower but the rate of conflict was higher. Non kin VIPs tended to focus on strengthening the emotional supportive function as Beam et al (2002:321) report that they concentrated on expressing “interest and concern for adolescents well being”, “let adolescent know that he\ she did something well,” “ will always be around if adolescent needs help.” Within the group of non-kin VIPs their differing importance to the adolescent (the fourth question) was found to be located in the frequency of support and contact between the two.

A significant finding highlighted by these authors, and in contrast to the other studies quoted, is that natural mentors can play a developmental role in the lives of youth who are not already characterized as being at risk. They point out VIPs provide “an experientially rich and interpersonally supportive environment for development” and as such “comprise an additional and important component” in lives of adolescents. (Beam et al 2002:322) This endorses the value of also involving mentors in preventative services in social work practice. As Berger, McBreen and Rifkin (1996:136) remind us adolescence like all other periods has its “characteristic problems and potentials as during this life course biological development occurs in a “carefully sequenced manner…… adolescence (being) a time of rapid hormonal change ………occur(ing) in a psychosocial-cultural-historical context”. Berger et al (1996) emphasise that dependent on the way these sources of behaviour interact, and taking human diversity into consideration, they can become either resources or obstacles in a person’s identification and attainment of his/her life goals.

3.3.6 Common themes in the research findings. The above studies indicated that the largest number of natural mentors identified by adolescents fell within the extended family group. Not withstanding this notable reasons were also advanced why other types of mentors could be considered more effective resources. For example

42 Sanchez et al (2008) and DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) found that non familial mentors were associated with the academic success of respondents; in the case of Sanchez et al (2008) due to mentors having higher levels of education and in that of Dubois and Silverthorn (2005) to greater competence of the mentors or the greater likelihood of their referring adolescents to external resources. Darling (in Dubois and Karcher2005) pointed out that adolescents while still maintaining a good relationship with their parents spend more time outside the home and are less likely to share information with them than with a mentor with whom they have contact in their social networks. Similarly Beam et al (2002) noted that adolescents find it uncomfortable to discuss all issues with the parents, referring to the latter as punitive and judgmental while relationships with familial mentors were characterized by more conflict than those with non-familial ones.

Both Beam et al (2002) and DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) offer suggestions regarding services to youth .The latter suggest that “consideration be given to instituting …..programs that cultivate natural mentoring relationships between adolescents and those adults who are already salient figures in different parts of their lives such as school, extracurricular activities and neighborhoods”. (DuBois and Silverthorn 2005:88) In addition that training and support be given to such adults to facilitate the formation of such relationships, as well as to enhance their quality and future viability. If they are able to create an atmosphere of trust this would emulate the greater closeness evident in the family group which in turn would enable the youth to share their personal problems. Similarly Beam et al (2002) urge service providers to strengthen and facilitate the relationships between natural mentors and youth through education and training programs. 3.4 Types of Support Provided by Mentors I have summarised my understanding of the frequently occurring types of social support provided by mentors as set out in the writings of the authors discussed in this chapter and in chapter 2 in the following table.

43 Table 3.1: Types of Social Support Provided by Mentors
Types Support
Cognitive guidanceincludes informational support, guidance, giving instructions, providing advice and acting as a role model direct which

of Practical Examples
What courses to take for a career or a job. Assisting with homework. Imparting knowledge regarding a skill-e.g. job related skills, social skills technical skills which also includes knowledge and expertise in respect of games and sport.

Possible Response of youth
Inspires them to do their best. Knowing the coach has effected what they do and the choices they make. Less problem behaviour re alcohol and drug use, non violent delinquency, less vulnerable to negative

attitudes of friends, less likely to carry a weapon; have sex with more than one partner. Positive school attitudes and academic achievement.

Emotional Supporttrust, respect, sensitivity, caring, attuned to needs. display empathy,

1) During stressful situations such as death of loved one, romantic break-ups, difficulties with schoolwork. 2) Talking about personal problems, discussions regarding strengths weaknesses and values. 3) General Attitude- empathize with youth; see their potential, resources to be developed and not problems to be fixed. 4) Communication should signal that the youth is a person to be trusted and one who is capable of mature dialogue.

Person who believes and cares about them. Person they are close to.

Social

Capital\

Provide youth with connections to resources or other adults e.g. to obtain a job or any experience that promotes self development. Standing up\ interceding\mediating for youth when in trouble.

Person they can count on.

Advocacy\ Sponsorship

Tangible Assistance Adult supervision Social participation

Invitations to sports events, financial support e.g. pocket money, transport costs. Haven or sanctuary Shared activities, be a friend, relaxation and fun. Recreational interactions. Adults who disclosed something of their personal life to youth. Adults who took youth into their confidence and shared aspects of their own life with them.

Positive feedback\ Performance feedback

Sounding board.

44 Conclusion The core elements of a mentor as opposed to a mentee are described as a person with greater experience, who offers guidance within the context of an emotional bond. The concept of group mentoring is defined in terms of one adult offering support to a group of youths, which resonates with the participants of the research study who are coaches and their team of players. The literature study quoted suggests that mentoring, through the provision of social support, has a positive impact on the developmental needs of adolescents in terms of enhancing their cognitive and identity development, promoting better mental health and the acquisition of skills. Research studies regarding natural mentors are discussed in depth. The common findings are that non familial mentors, amongst which sports coaches are listed, are not the largest group with whom adolescents interacted. However they (natural mentors) were found to be far more effective resources in terms of promoting academic achievement and information sharing than familial mentors. It is asserted that, natural mentors have the potential to play a supportive role in the lives of both at risk adolescents and those who only need support to make a successful transition to adulthood, provided they receive the necessary training. The next chapter discusses a theoretical basis for the mediating role of the mentor in the form of resilience theory with its reference to protective factors, which include the role of the non parental adult.

45

Chapter 4 Resilience Theory

Introduction This chapter examines the theoretical basis for the mediating role of the mentor discussed in the last chapter. This is done from the perspective of numerous studies which highlight the factors associated with promoting resilience in children who are exposed to risky conditions. Particular reference is made to their impact during the life period of adolescence, the focus group of the researchers study.

4.1 History of concept of resilience The forerunner of resilience was the concept of invulnerability, developed largely by Garmenzy in 1972 when he used this term to describe a small sample of ghetto raised black children “who adjusted well notwithstanding profound stress associated with poverty, squalor and prejudice”. (Cowen and Work 1988: 597) Garmenzy later became involved in ‘Project Competence’ which researched the resilience in children who were considered at risk due to their parents suffering from mental illness. This author posited the existence of certain variables operating in stressful situations to act as protective factors which he clustered as follows firstly temperament e.g. “activity level, reflectiveness in meeting new situations, cognitive skills and positive responsiveness to others”; secondly the presence of caring adult within the family system when parents were unable to fulfill this role due to absence or marital problems.( Garmenzy 1991:420) The third cluster related to external support, such as a maternal substitute, concerned teacher or institutional structure e.g. church or agency which promotes ties to the larger community. In 1993 Garmenzy in an article co authored with Cicchetti (Cicchetti and Garmenzy1993) suggest that more recent definitions of resilience should also include those who have overcome stress linked to specific life period such as adolescence.

4.2 Definition of resilience Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) from their review of 20 studies in respect of resilience posit that the concept of resilience refers to “a process or phenomenon, reflecting positive child adjustment despite conditions of risk” (Luthar and Zelazo

46 in Luthar 2003:510) and not a “personal trait that allows some at risk youth to succeed in life”. (Luthar and Zelazo in Luthar 2003:513) Masten and Powell (in Luthar 2003:4) argue that resilience is defined by making two judgments about an individual’s life namely “(1) that a person is doing okay and (2) that there is now or has been significant risk or adversity to overcome”. Doing okay is equated to psychosocial competence which they define as “a track record of effective performance in developmental tasks that are salient for people of a given age, society or context and historical time.”

Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) view risk as any condition in a child’s life that can lead to maladjustment whereas positive adaptation is viewed as more than would have been expected given the risk to which the child was exposed .This ranges from excellent functioning to the absence of psychopathology or evasion of the risk dependent on the seriousness of the risk facing the child. These authors also refer these outcomes as competence predictors. Similarly Seidman and Pedersen (in Luthar 2003:320) equate positive adaptation with competence, which they argue can only be grasped if looked at in a holistic manner by examining “the package or pattern of responses across multiple proximal social contexts”. These authors refer to this as “contextual competence”. Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) argue that resilience itself cannot be measured but is derived from the measurement of two other constructs namely risk and positive adaptation.

4.3 Protective factors and resilience Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) analysis of resilience research indicates that some factors, namely protective factors mitigate in favor of resilience in the face of adversity while others, vulnerability factors exacerbate the adverse conditions present. The research studied by these authors suggests that protective and vulnerability factors can present in a variety of ways. Firstly they can be viewed as the extremes on a single continuum and the example quoted refers to high levels of intelligence being a protective factor in that this can lead to good scholastic performance whereas a low IQ can be a vulnerability factor, which engenders academic failure. Secondly protective and vulnerability factors can be distinct from one another such as while the children of teenage mothers can be considered vulnerable, having an older mother does not ensure well adjusted children. Thirdly a protection factor can often have the most beneficial effect

47 when it is present to a moderate degree when one considers that a complete lack of closeness between parents and children can be as damaging as a too close enmeshed relationship between the two.

Masten and Powell (in Luthar 2003) examined the links between competence, adversity and potential protective factors. They hypothesize the additive, mediating and moderating effects by variables such as differences between individual children, the nature of their relationships and how they interact in their world. According to these authors the addictive or compensatory model of resilience suggests that the negative effects of adversity can be countered by increasing the qualitative and quantitative assets needed to achieve competence through the provision of more resources, which for example enhance parental skills, or the level of social support to the family.

Moderating protective factors are those, which seek to alter the impact of the risk by decreasing the individual’s susceptibility to the risk at the time it occurs. In some instances the risk activates the moderating factor in much the same way that an airbag in a car inflates on impact to cushion the occupants against the effects of injury. An example would be emergency services to families in crisis. Other moderators are always present such as personality or cognitive aspects which alter in adverse situations so that for example some children are more upset than others by the same set of circumstances.

4.4 A breakdown of protective factors into categories Authors such as Masten and Powell (in Luthar 2003); Sameroff, Gutman and Peck (in Luthar 2003); Cauce, Stewart, Rodriguez, Cochran and Ginzlwe (in Luthar 2003); Hetherington and Elmore (in Luthar 2003) and Boyden and Mann (in Ungar 2005) found commonalities regarding categories of protective factors which are often associated with resilience. Masten and Powell (in Luthar 2003) describe these as ‘individual differences,’ ‘relationships’, and ‘community resources and opportunities’ which are set out in the following table. (Reproduced from Masten and Powell in Luthar 2003:13)

48 Table 4.1: Examples of attributes of individuals and their contexts often associated with resilience

Individual Differences Cognitive abilities (IQ scores, attentional skills, executive functioning skills) Self- perceptions of competence, worth, confidence (self –efficacy, self esteem) Temperament and personality (adaptability, sociability) Self- regulation skills (impulse control, affect and arousal regulation) Positive outlook on life (hopefulness, belief that life has meaning, faith) Relationships Parenting qualities (including warmth, structure and monitoring, expectations) Close relationships with competent adults (parents, relatives, mentors) Connections to prosocial and rule- abiding peers (among older children) Community Resources and Opportunities Good schools Connections to prosocial organizations (such as club or religious groups) Neighborhood quality (public safety, collective supervision, libraries, recreational centers) Quality of social services and health care.

Seidman and Pedersen (in Luthar 2003) in their research of youth’s relationships in a variety of domains emphasize the role of context as critical for a holistic understanding of an individual’s development and functioning at all levels. They refer to the essence of development \ functioning as well as competence only being evident when the patterns of a youth’s interactions within various social contexts are considered. These authors suggest that different competencies are fostered dependent on the contexts or domains where the youth is involved. They researched youth’s relationships in peer groups schools, athletics and religion, finding that positive experiences by youth in at least two of the mentioned settings were associated with “less depression and greater self esteem than –high quality engagement with only one domain”. (Seidman and Pedersen in Luthar 2003:336) Less serious acts of delinquency was another outcome while in contrast athletic involvement in the absence of other domains was found to be risky for the

49 development of youth. Seidman and Pedersen (in Luthar 2003:338) suggest that a possible explanation for the positive outcomes could be that youth “have more opportunities to get involved in a relationship with a caring, supportive adult or engaged in more structured and \ or supervised after school activities”.

Sameroff et al (in Luthar 2003) set out to identify factors, which could act as a buffer against the effects of risks, and categorized these in terms of environmental and personal protective factors. In the case of environmental protective factors (my italics) they studied the variables of ‘income and marital status’ and ‘family process’. The former were often found to be linked to a package of other risk factors. For example these authors found that “whereas 39% of poor children lived in high risk families with more than 7 risk factors only 7% of affluent children did. Similarly whereas 29% of single parent families lived in high risk social conditions, only 15% of two-parent families did”. (Sameroff et al in Luthar 2003:378) In terms of the family process factors, parental school involvement, consistent discipline and peer support contributed towards positive outcomes. Democratic decision making by parents fostered a sense of autonomy in children from low risk environments but higher levels of parental control were found to be more beneficial for adolescents and children from high risk ones.

Personal protective factors (my italics) which these authors researched included gender and race, resourcefulness and mental health. As regards the first factor (gender and race) no differences were found between boys and girls or difference race groups with the overall conclusion being that the more risk factors that were present the more negative the developmental outcomes were for all participants. By resourcefulness the authors alluded to the possibility of “children with high levels of social capital (who)(my brackets) are able to overcome the problem of minimal resources at home and in the community to reach levels of achievement comparable to those of children from more highly advantaged social strata.” (Sameroff et al in Luthar 2003:382)

Cauce et al (in Luthar 2003) reviewed studies examining adolescent development in the context of urban poverty, identifying protective processes within the context of the family, community organisations and the peer group. Those pertaining to the family included parents who monitored their children closely; restricted their

50 association with undesirable peers and neighbors; enforced firm discipline by setting clear boundaries and demanding respect; and encouraged learning activities at home, which reinforced the expectations of the school. Extended

family members were found to be a resource when they occupied a higher socioeconomic status than the parents and were able to share parenting roles. Adolescents who were involved with community organizations including youth centers and churches were found to be “less likely to participate in problem behaviors like assault, stealing and vandalism”. (Cauce et al in Luthar 2003:350) Finally adolescents who had only marginal relationships with delinquent youth groups displayed less antisocial values.

Hetherington and Elmore (in Luthar 2003) describe the nature of protective factors in adolescents exposed to divorce and re marriage of their parents over a wider range of domains than the previous authors locating these within the family, the community, the adolescent, the peer group and adults outside the family home. In the first domain the quality of parenting is emphasized with the focus on authoritative parents who are warm, supportive, communicative and responsive to children’s needs yet also firm, consistent and reasonable and closely supervise their off spring.

Within the community context these authors stress financial security highlighting the regular payment of maintenance by non-custodial parent. In this domain the school environment is also viewed as important especially when characterized by defined “schedules, rules and regulations and the use of warm consistent discipline and expectations for mature behavior”(Hetherington and Elmore in Luthar 2003:203) In terms of individual factors, age was relevant in the context of adolescents being able to seek supportive relationships outside the family e.g. parents of a friend, coach, teacher or other adult mentor while being female was significant when they had the support of competent caring adult. Other protective factors relating to the adolescent were having an easy temperament, being physically attractive, of normal or above average intelligence, displaying selfesteem, having a sense of humor as well as a close relationship with a single friend.

51 Boyden and Mann (in Ungar 2005: 6) review what they refer to as “mechanisms at the individual, family and wider environmental levels” that have been shown to have a significant influence on risk and resilience in children. They cite individual factors such as good physical health, temperament in terms of resourcefulness, curiosity, being goal directed, and being motivated to help others. Other

individual factors referred to by these authors include social competence, problem solving skills and positive experiences in terms of approval, acceptance and opportunities to develop mastery. For these authors interpersonal relationships are viewed as critical mediating factors in resilience. One of these is the relationship with a supportive adult, who could be a family member or significant other, a nonparental adult who takes on a mentorship role in modelling problem solving and coping skills. Another relationship is that of social support from peers in areas where adolescents can “experiment, develop attitudes, skills and values and learn to share, help and nurture one another”. (Boyden and Mann in Ungar 2005:8) These authors view the environmental context as supplementing individual and family protection factors if it is a supportive one such as a school or community group.

Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) in their summary of the 20 studies they reviewed highlight the most critical protection factors or risk modifiers in terms of the family, the community and the child. They found that positive family functioning had strong protective effects in diverse groups who could be considered at risk and that such effects were apparent during various developmental phases of the child. There were certain commonalities as to what constituted good parenting for example consistency in affection and the ability to set limits. As regards communities they noted that families benefited when there was “high support and cohesion among neighbors, a sense of belonging to the community and proactive supervision of youth by other adults.” Other areas where benefits accrued were the involvement of youth in structured after school activities or with peers who endorsed pro-social behavior. These interactions were found to mitigate against involvement in delinquent activities with anti social peers. Child attributes, which influence resilience, were listed as “high intelligence, internal locus of control, good coping skills and easygoing temperament”. (Luthar and Zelazo in Luthar 2003:530) However several of the authors Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003) reviewed noted that the children’s

52 characteristics were less influential in promoting and maintaining resilience when confronted with a disadvantaged environment .It is pointed out that “when stressful life events outweigh the protective factors even the most resilient child can develop problems. (Werner 2000:128)

Luthar and Zelazo (in Luthar 2003:526) assert that there is not one protection factor that predicts universal competence in the presence of risk, as “there will always be some variations in the pathways that eventuate in children’s psychological health in the presence versus the absence of major life adversities.” They cite the example of good parenting, one of the chief protection factors in promoting children’s well-being, is likely to have been constrained in families exposed to mental illness and chronic poverty who will need addition resources to overcome their problems. In addition that competence should be assessed in terms of the various areas in which children are simultaneously involved and not in terms of a single activity.

These authors suggest that interventions to promote resilience in children should focus firstly on enhancing the quality of parent child relationships with programs being offered as early as possible and including strengthening maternal emotional well being and sustainable effective parenting. Secondly on community based interventions such as coalitions between groups of recipients and welfare agencies as well as within the school environment where they suggest that for adolescents interventions consider “involving supportive relationships with adults at school (preferably adults to whom students are naturally drawn and not compulsorily assigned …….role of informal support provided by ……informal mentors.” (Luthar and Zelazo in Luthar 2003:543)

4.5 Resilience in adolescence Masten and Powell (in Luthar 2003:11) compared individuals who met their definition of having resilience criteria to those who they described as maladjusted individuals. These two groups displayed different outcomes when exposed to similar levels of risk. A significant finding was that “there may be an important window of opportunity in the transition to adulthood for some youth allowing them to restructure their environments in ways that favor competence”. Another

53 was that the competence manifested by resilient youth endured into early adulthood.

Coleman and Hagell (2007) focused on the risk factors or stressors that adolescents are subject to as well as introducing the concept of risky behaviour. They suggest that risk factors can be categorised in a variety of ways such as in terms of their location within the individual, family or community or being the result of independent or non-independent events. In addition that risk factors tend to be found in clusters and the manner in which this takes place will determine both how the adolescent will cope as well as the level of resources required to address the risk.

In the first instance these authors refer to individual factors as attributes such as temperament, intelligence, health, ability to tolerate frustration or to concentrate. Secondly family factors relate largely to the parents in terms of their health, marital relationship, involvement in crime and exercising of discipline. Finally community factors take cognisance of the economic situation, housing, quality of schooling and social services as well as environmental influences such as crime and substance abuse. Coleman and Hagell (2007) also refer to macro influences, which are evident in a country as a whole and identify the uncertain employment market as well as the changing structure of the family as significant for adolescents in Britain. Their reference to the difficulty of school leaving youth to access jobs without tertiary education resonates with the high unemployment rate of youth in South Africa, which often includes those who have studied further. Whereas Coleman and Hagell (2007) refer to the single parent family the child headed household situation in South Africa would tend to exacerbate the impact of risk.

In the second scenario sketched by these authors’ namely independent or nonindependent events, the first refers to those events over which the person has no control such as the death of a parent, war or a natural disaster. In contrast the second, non-independent events are related to an individual’s own behaviour such as difficulties within relationships and taking health risks. Thirdly they equate the risk factors associated with these independent or non-independent events to stressors which adolescents experience in this particular life phase. They describe

54 these as either normative or generic stressors, which would include events such as changing school, loosing a friend or conflicting with adults or non-normative stressors. The latter are divided into acute and chronic stressors. Examples of

acute stressors would be an injury, accident or death of a parent whereas the most pervasive stressors are those that are chronic in nature such as racism, bullying, parental conflict and poverty.

As indicated earlier Coleman and Hagell (2007) also differentiate between risk factors and risky behaviour, which is congruent with their description of nonindependent events where the risk is related to the adolescent’s own behaviour. This would include behaviour such as smoking, substance abuse, antisocial acts and risky sexual behaviour.

Unlike the previous authors quoted, Bernard (in Saleebey 2002:215) mainly focuses on only two categories of protective factors namely ‘turnabout people’ and ‘turnabout places’ in his four core beliefs pertaining to resilience. His first core belief states, “most high risk youth make it”. He argues that resilience researchers world wide have documented that between 50-70% of children and youth from high risk environments grow up to be successful. In his second core belief Bernard (in Saleebey 2002:216) stresses that “all individuals have innate resilience”, in his third and fourth core beliefs he spells out the difference people and places can make. He discusses the role of people in terms of the ongoing relationship between the young person and a caring adult who can be found in a variety of roles such as that of neighbours, friends, family, ministers, youth workers, teachers, etc. The latter become ‘turnaround people’ when they exhibit three critical protection factors namely “caring relationships, high expectation messages and opportunities for participation and contribution.”

As regards the first protection factor, Bernard (in Saleebey 2002) describes turnaround people as caring, supportive and displaying unconditional love, interpreting this as being available to listen to a child or in simple gestures such as a greeting or a touch on the shoulder. In addition they (turnaround people) respect others as being of equal value to themselves; are compassionate in that they see beyond a child’s acting out behaviour to the pain and suffering underneath. In

55 addition they practice active listening and acknowledge the gifts of the child, which in turn enhances his or her feelings of value and importance.

Bernard (in Saleebey, 2002:218) also refers to turnabout adults as displaying a second protection factor namely “positive and high expectations that reflect (their) deep belief in the young person’s innate resilience and self righting capacities”. In other words seeing the possibilities or vision of what the young person could do or become. In addition, reflecting this back to the young person so that they too can recognize their existing strengths. This involves emphasizing the power of the youth to “re trace life’s narrative from damaged victim to resilient survivor”. Turnaround people do this by helping the young see that they are not the cause nor can they be expected to control the problems of others such as a father’s drinking problem. Rather their power lies in the non-permanence of the situation, which is only one part of a life experience and one, which they are able to rise above.

The third protection factor Bernard (in Saleebey, 2002:218) links to turnabout people is that of “creating the opportunities for youth participation and contribution”. He points out that “social competence, problem solving and a sense of self and the future” develop when one has an opportunity to voice one’s own opinion, make choices, engage in creative problem solving and use ones gifts in working with and helping others. Bernard (in Saleebey 2002) cites partaking in hobbies, interests and cooperative enterprises as arenas where this can occur. A pre-requisite is however that the adults involved must be willing to share their power with the youth and involve them in for example program planning and concluding agreements. He suggests that the beginning point could be the youth’s own interests, goals and dreams. Bernard’s (in Saleebey 2002:219) 4th core belief is “it’s how we do what we do that counts”. The ‘how’ refers to the caring and empowering approach demonstrated by ‘turnabout people’ who were the subject of Bernard’s 3rd core belief. The ‘what’ is described as the behavior turnabout people model so as to create “a climate in which caring respect and responsibility are the behavioral norms”. He goes on to introduce the concept of ‘turnabout places’, which he describes inter alia as a sanctuary for young people such as schools, groups, services, and community organizations or the like.

56 Bernard (in Saleebey 2002: 220) describes his 5th and final core belief as “the bottom line and starting point for creating youth-serving organizations, programs and services”. This involves the adults in organizations accepting his second core belief that all youth are innately resilient, quoting Hilliard’s (in Saleebey 2002: 220) advice that no “approaches or strategies will mean anything if the fundamental belief system does not fit the new structures that are being created”. Bernard (in Saleebey 2002) also encourages organizations not only to refer youth to formal mentoring programmes but also to help them to nurture relationships with mentors, which occur naturally in their lives.

4.6 Field studies in respect of resilience 4.6.1The research most frequently quoted in the literature is that of Werner (1993) and her associates who were part of longitudinal study of children from the Hawaiian Island of Kauai where assessments were done at ages 1, 2, 18 and 32. Of the 698 children born on the Island in 1955 one third of the surviving children (number =201) were designated as high risk because “they were born into poverty, they had experienced moderate to severe degrees of perinatal stress, and they lived in a family environment troubled by chronic discord, parental alcoholism and mental illness”. (Werner 1993:503) However 72 of these high risk children did not manifest any serious learning or behavior problems in childhood or adolescence and grew up to be competent adults. Werner (1993) and her associates compared the two groups linking the outcome of successful adult adaptation to the presence of certain clusters of protective factors. The first cluster included the temperament characteristics of the individual; the second skills and values, which resulted in the effective use of abilities in the educational and vocational areas as well as managing domestic and household tasks. The third cluster related to the care giving by parents in terms of promoting competence and self esteem and the fourth cluster to adults within the extended family, community groups and teachers who acted as mentors providing support and trust .The final cluster embodied the utilization of opportunities during changes in the life course such as the transition from school to work, from civilian to military life, from being single to marriage as well as later parenthood.

57 Werner (1993:513) aligns the above findings to the protective processes described by Rutter. Firstly, -“those that reduce the risk impact” on the child e.g. youth who lived in what Werner (1993) described as a delinquency prone environment did not commit offences when there was structure and rules in the household. Children whose parents were assessed as having “chronic psychopathology” were able to remove themselves from this environment through time spent with caring non-parental and non familial adults. Secondly, “those that reduce the likelihood of negative chain reactions” for example the hospitalization of psychotic or alcoholic parents was mitigated by the presence of grandparents or older siblings who provided continuity as substitute parents. Thirdly “those that promote self esteem and self efficacy” e.g., engagement in interests and hobbies, responsibilities in line with competence such as part time work or managing the household, and helpfulness in the community. Werner (1993:512) found that “most of all self esteem and self efficacy were promoted through supportive relationships with someone who accepted them unconditionally and that this is in line with “the experience from intergenerational mentoring programs (which) also suggests that a close relationship with an unrelated elder can foster self esteem in a troubled child or youth. An essential aspect of the encounter is that the youth feels he or she is special to the other person.” Fourthly “those that open up opportunities” eg college education, skills acquired in armed forces and involvement in religious activities.

In conclusion Werner (1993) suggests that any intervention programs whether preventative or otherwise needs to focus on both the risk and protective factors in children’s lives. In particular that when parents are incapacitated or unavailable existing sources of informal support whether within the extended family or community, should be utilized to enhance the child’s problem solving capacities.

4.6.2 Ferguson and Horwood (in Luthar 2003) reported on a 21 year longitudinal study of 1265 New Zealand children who were studied at birth, 4 months and 1year and thereafter yearly until the age of 16, 18 and 21 years respectively. Data was collected from parents, the children themselves, psychometric tests and various records obtained from schools, the police and

58 the medical profession. The researchers sought to ascertain whether children who had been subjected to high levels of adversity prior to the age of 16 years would develop psychopathology as young adults ;( 18 to 21years) and in the cases of those who did not what protective factors accounted for this.

Adversity was measured in terms of a socio economic component; (socioeconomic status, level of parental education and standard of living) parental change and conflict ;( single parent family, family stability and violence between spouses) child abuse within the family and parental problems. (alcohol and drug abuse and criminality) Psychosocial adjustment of the children as young adults was defined in terms of mental health as it pertained to the presence of major depression, anxiety disorders, antisocial personality disorders, suicidal behaviour and the commission of a criminal offence.

The findings of the study highlighted the following protective factors namely parental attachment, gender with females tending to be more resilient with regard to avoiding acting out behaviour (what the authors refer to as externalising) and males with regard to handling mental health problems (internalising responses); temperament or personality factors such as high self esteem, low novelty seeking which tended to limit risk taking behaviour and finally limited or no contact with delinquent peers

4.7 Summary of frequency of protective factors found in the literature In order to gain an understanding of the frequency with which the various categories of protective factors cited in the literature appear and particularly the protective factors attributed to the non parental adult, which is at the heart of the research questions, the information of 11 authors presented in this chapter is summarized in the following figure.

59
Figure4.1 Frequency of catergories of protective factors

Non Parental Adults 21% Peer Group 19%

Parents 21% Community 21%

Individual Child 18%

It will be noted that there is almost an equal spread between the 5 categories namely parents, the community, the individual child, peer group and relationships with a non parental adults although not all authors identified all categories as enhancing resilience. There is a strong indication that a supportive relationship between a child and an adult other than the parents is significant although many of the studies quoted did not identify this person specifically. When this information was provided reference was made to extended family members as well as teachers, sports coaches and parents of friends. Luthar and Zelazo (Luthar in 2003) also suggest that naturally occurring mentors in the adolescent’s school should be considered in future interventions, which provides a theoretical basis regarding the potential of sports coaches to enhance resilience in adolescents.

Conclusion Resilience theory suggests that there are clusters or categories of protective factors, which facilitates children’s ability to adjust well under adverse conditions. There is also an acknowledgement in the literature that this applies equally to youth during the life course of adolescence with its attendant stresses .One category of protective factors refers to the relationship between a child and caring adult, even one outside the family system who can compliment the role of the parents. This is congruent with the concept of a mentor as a resource for adolescents as discussed in the previous chapter. The next chapter discusses how data was obtained from the participant coaches and adolescents, its analysis and interpretation.

60

Chapter 5 Data Analysis and Interpretation
Introduction This chapter discusses the coaches and adolescents making up the sample in more detail, the interview guide used to collect the data and the analysis of emerging themes, which are clarified through appropriate literature. The findings are discussed against the backdrop of the types of social support functions the literature attributes to natural mentors.

5.1 The research design This was qualitative in nature in order to gain an understanding of the experiences of coaches and adolescents with regard to the provision of social support such as “emotional encouragement, concrete assistance or tangible aid and advice and information” (Kemp, Whittaker and Tracey quoted in chapter 2 by Miley et al 2004:351)

5.2 The sample The non-probability purposive sample was informed by the age of the adolescent (between13 and 18years) the frequency of participation in any coached sport (at least twice per month) and ability to understand English and Afrikaans. Coaches were selected in terms of their on field involvement with adolescents from the specified age group. Convenience sampling was employed in terms of the identification of the sports coaches by their school principals and the coaches’ selection of adolescents from the teams they coached. The final sample consisted of 10 sports coaches and 63 adolescents from six schools, two primary and four high schools of which the two primary schools and two of the high schools were situated in townships. The remaining two high schools (ex model c schools) were located within more affluent communities .The schools were selected from two magisterial districts out of a total of 101 schools located on the East and Far East Rand in terms of the aforesaid critical differences between them as well as their relationship with the Department of Health and Social Development and resultant willingness to engage in the research study. It can be suggested that the latter factor resulted in an imbalance between the status of the involved schools in that four were located in townships and only two were ex model c schools. Only one

61 school in the sample specialised in sport and it catered for a specified group in terms of language and race. During the course of the research it was ascertained that there is a similar school which is more diverse in its student selection procedures. The inclusion of this school could have provided valuable insights into the relationship between coaches and adolescents when winning drives sport.

Table 5.1 below summarises the status of the participating schools, their resources and coaches on their staff establishment. It will be noted that ‘ex township schools’ generally had more limited sporting facilities than the ‘ex model c schools’ who in the past had accommodated mainly white learners. In addition there are critical differences between the ‘ex township schools’ ranging from those which have either no or limited facilities, to those whose facilities are in a state of disrepair. However all but one of the ex township schools were able to supplement their resources by using community facilities.

The sports coaches interviewed made up 21% of the total number of available coaches. The considerable variation between schools regarding the number of coaches on their establishment is due to some appointing a coach per age group and others per a particular sport within each different sporting code offered by the school concerned. All the coaches in the sample were also teachers by profession although in one instance, that of High School C, they only taught sports related subjects.

62 Table 5.1: Status of Schools in the sample
Name of Status of School School Number Number of Of Coaches Coaches Interviewed at School Ex township - primary Limited own facilities; 7 2 school also use community soccer grounds Ex township - primary Own facilities but some 19 1 school in disrepair Ex model c high Own facilities 7 3 school-specializes in sport Ex township high Community facilities 2 1 School limited Ex model high school Own facilities 11 2 Ex township high No formal facilities at 2 1 School school- use paved space between classrooms for informal games. Community facilities extremely limited 6 48 10 Sports Facilities

School A

School B School C

School D School E School F

Total

As indicated in chapter 1 the coaches identified by their school principals to participate in the study were requested to select between 6 and 12 adolescents from any sports teams they coached on the basis of criteria specified by the researcher in terms of age, ability to communicate in certain languages and frequency of playing sport. This reflects the use of a combination of purposive and convenience sampling techniques. With the exception of two learners at High School F the adolescent participants conformed to the specified age group of being between the ages of thirteen and eighteen .The two concerned were older than eighteen years but were part of a class whose normative age is usually between fifteen and seventeen years old and the age discrepancy was only discovered during the course of the interview. The other criteria of playing sport regularly (at least twice a month), being exposed to a coach and being able to converse in English or Afrikaans was adhered to. For most of the children, the exception being High School F, which had no sporting facilities, this included a coach at school, although some also played for an external club which was either professionally or community based. In the case of High School F all the

adolescents played coached sport outside the school environment. Other than one school, High School C, which only has white learners all the other participants

63 were racially diverse. The figure below sets out the age, gender and race of the adolescents in the sample.

Table 5.2: Sample of Adolescents
Name of School Number In Sample Grade/ Age Group Grade 7: 13-15 years Gender 5 males School A 7 Primary School

2 females School B 10 Primary School School C High 9 School School D High 8 School School E High 9 School (Boys) School E High 11 School (Girls) School F High 9 School Totals 7groups 63 Grade 7: 13-15 years Grade 8: 14years Grade 8: 14-15 years Grade 10, 11: 16-18 years Grade 9, 10, and 11 15-17 years Grade 9 and 10: 15-19 years 3 males 7 females 9 males 8 males 9 males

11 females 7 males 2 females

Grades7: 2groups Males: 41 Grade 8:2 groups Females: 22 Grades9, 10 and 11: 3 groups Ages 13 -19

The sample of adolescents totalled 63, of whom 41 were males and 22 females. Seventeen were at primary schools and in grade 7, and 46 at high school, ranging from grade 8 to grade 11. The youngest was 13 and the eldest 19. The following graph illustrates the sample in terms of the status of the participating schools the number of adolescents per school as well as their gender.

64

5.3 Collection of Data. The data was collected by means of individual interviews with coaches and focus groups with adolescents who all took place in the school setting and with the exception of one focus group during official school hours. Ten different coaches from 6 schools were interviewed in total. Three coaches were from one school, (High School C) two each from both High School E and Primary School A and one per the remaining schools (Primary School B, High School D and High School F). This is set out in schematic form in table 5.1 The average duration of the interview was 45 minutes with the exception of two interviews (Primary Schools A and B) where the time frame was approximately 15 minutes. In both instances this was due to the coaches having other commitments despite prior appointments having been made and in one case an earlier appointment not being adhered to .The end result was that in-depth information was not obtained as is evident from the record of these interviews contained in annexure 2. In two township schools and one model c school the interviews lasted for almost one hour which was due to the coaches being passionate about the subject matter and in the case of the township schools considerable detail being provided regarding the social problems in their respective communities. The researcher gained the impression that this was motivated by their desire for her to take up their issues with the relevant authorities. Suggested actions in this regard form part of the recommendations contained in chapter 7.

65 One focus group session was conducted with 7 different groups of adolescents, consisting of one group per school in 5 schools and two groups in the sixth school as per the decision of the involved coaches and as set out in table 5.2. The number of children per focus group ranged from 7 to 11. These interviews also took place in the school setting with the average duration being 40 minutes with an additional 15 minutes being expended on the setting up and dismantling of the tape recorder with which the children helped. However in three groups from two schools (High School F-1group; High School E-2 groups) the actual group discussion was a little over an hour in duration. It is significant that all these schools are high schools and the children were eager and active participants who could express themselves easily and fluently. Of the seven groups, three were with boys only; three were with adolescents of both genders and one with girls only. The gender composition of the groups was influenced by the nature of the sport in which the coach was involved for example boys who played rugby, soccer or cricket (High Schools E, C and D) and girls who played netball (High School E) or merely the selection of the coach (Primary Schools A and B and High School F) As highlighted in tables 5. 1 (page 62) and 5.2 (page 63) coaches and adolescents from the same school were interviewed.

5.4 Interview questions The interview guides for adolescents and coaches as listed in Annexure 1 were used as an outline to explore the experiences (positive or negative) of coaches and youth regarding the types of social support, which the literature suggests, are provided by mentors. A total of five semi -structured and one open ended

questions were compiled with the content being similar for both coaches and adolescents although the way the questions were posed was adjusted to suit the participants’ understanding. The essence of the questions is summarized and the type of social support they sort to elicit is reflected in brackets. • Factual information pertaining to the frequency of contact between the coach and adolescent and the context in which this took place i.e. the sports field, playground or classroom situation. • The subject matter of the guidance or information given by the coach and\or received by the adolescent. (cognitive support)

66 • • • • The relationship between the coach and adolescent from their respective perspectives. (as an indicator of emotional support) Winning and pressure as opposed to fun and enjoyment and whether these are mutually exclusive concepts. (social participation) Benefits derived from or as a consequence of sport. (sponsorship and advocacy) Sport and the resolution of social problems including the environmental context in which they were located. (supervision)

5.5 Practical implementation of research instrumentation 5.5.1 Focus groups Prior to the commencement of each focus group conducted with the adolescent sample the researcher emphasized the voluntary nature of participation, the right of participants to withdraw at any time, confidentiality regarding the names of participants and the approximate time the group session would take. In addition at this stage consent of participants to tape the session as well as to take notes was requested and received in all cases with the adolescents assisting the researcher to set up the tape recorder and to test for clarity of sound. During the sessions themselves the researcher tried not to interrupt the flow of the group, to make use of reflection and only asked a direct question when conversation had dried up. This strategy worked well with both groups of participants from High School E, an ex model c school as well as the mixed gender group from High School F, a township school. All the group members participated and were able to converse fluently, spontaneously and had a good command of English. In contrast in the all male groups from High School C (an ex model C school) and High School D (a township school) not all the boys participated; some cracked jokes and others were restless. This was despite the fact that in both groups their respective coaches, who had introduced the researcher and had asked them to cooperate. Since youth from township and ex model c schools displayed similar behavior, it seems that the maturity of group members could have played a role. Those from High Schools C and D were in their first year of high school while those from High Schools E and F had had almost two or more years at

67 high school. Consideration should be given to a preparatory group with younger children, as a forerunner to the focus group so as to build a relationship between them and the researcher and promote more effective communication patterns. The classroom arranged, as a venue by the coach at High School C was not conducive to a group discussion as the desks were in rows and could not be moved. This was the only group held after school hours at the insistence of the coach and when the researcher indicated the voluntary nature of the research six boys chose to leave.

5.5.2 Interviews with coaches In the one on one interview with coaches, fewer questions were generally required to obtain the information, as they tended to speak about the various types of social support as a holistic entity when the question pertaining to cognitive support was posed. As could be expected from teachers the coaches expressed themselves fluently from a position of authority and had very definite opinions, which they motivated in a thorough manner. However in two instances (one coach at Primary School A and another at Primary School B) in depth interviews were not possible due to the concerned teachers’ other commitments despite the fact that the researcher had made prior appointments with both.

5.6 Analysis of Data The majority of interviews were tape recorded while the researcher also took notes. The only interview not recorded was that with boys of High School C where the group was too spread out for the tape recorder to record the sound. As already mentioned the chairs could not be rearranged as they were bolted to the floor. Information obtained via the focus groups and individual interviews were immediately written up in terms of the themes which emerged, which included what the coach had provided guidance about, value of sport, sport and pressure, relationship with coach, description of person the youth feel comfortable sharing problems with, sport and resolution of problems, friends, sport and academic progress. The interviews were concluded with the researchers own observations, which included the highlighting of similarities, and contrasts between the different focus groups and individual interviews. The same headings were used to facilitate the comparison of data and where no information had been provided under a

68 particular heading this was indicated. A record of the interviews is contained in annexure 2. This data was then sorted into a schedule per support type, and further refined into sub themes as reflected in annexure 3. Table 5.3 below provides a summarised outline of this information. Table 5.3: Analysis of Types of Social Support Type of Social Support
1.Cognitive support

Sub themes
• • • • • • • Good sportsmanship, which was broken down into discipline, social, values, moral values and winning. Training in the technical skills of the game. Health issues. Academic matters. Role modelling. Behaviour towards parents\ girlfriends\ boyfriends and in classroom. Information re alcohol and drugs. Discussion of personal problems. Discussion of relationships with girlfriends\boyfriends. Interactions with parents. Nature of relationship with coach. Other emotional support systems. Role of culture. Impact of relationship on classroom matters. Related to school as a site for activities. As an antidote against crime and substance abuse. Improve mastery of game. Opportunities for professional career Advocate for children in difficult situations. Fun- joking. No stress . Participation in competitions. Aspects not related to sport. Game. Sports awards. Reading of names at assembly. Sporting kit. Food. Transport. Club fees. Clothing.

2.

Emotional

or

Indirect

Support

3.Supervision

• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

4.

Sponsorship\

advocacy\

social capital 5. Social Participation

6.Feedback

7. Tangible Support

5.7 Interpretation of Data 5.7.1 Cognitive Support This is described in the literature as informational support, direct guidance, giving instructions, providing advice and acting as a role model. This was categorised in terms of recurrent themes namely good sportsmanship,

69 training in the technical skills of the game, health, academic matters, advise on how to behave in various situations (classroom, toward parents and friends), information on substance abuse and lastly role modelling together with the frequency with which these themes were identified. Similar

experiences by coaches and adolescent players were added together to form a cumulative total. Each of the themes identified will be discussed in ascending order of frequency.

Figure5.2: Cognitive Support
35 30 30

Good sportsmanship Social Issues Discipline 12 Technical Skills 10 9 Academic Issues 7 6 4 Health Role modelling 1 Support themes

Frequency

25 20 15 10 5 0

5.7.1.1 Good Sportsmanship The concept of good sportsmanship is divided into three sub themes namely discipline, social values and moral values in terms of a description in the literature. A dictionary definition of sportsmanship refers to the conduct of a good sportsman as one who “abides by the rule of a contest, plays fair, and accepts victory or defeat graciously.” (Readers Digest Universal Dictionary) Both Damon (1997) and Beller (2002) echo this sentiment with the former author also highlighting the need for “discipline, persistence, cooperation ...maintain good working relationships with opponents”. (Damon 1997:119). Beller (2002:2) in her view of sportsmanship includes both moral values such as “honesty, fairness, fair play, justice and responsibility, and social values in the form of “loyalty, dedication, sacrifice, teamwork and good citizenship. The frequency with which sub themes are identified by coaches and the adolescents are

70 reflected in the graph below and there is a 70% correlation between the experiences of the two groups.

Figure 5.3 Good Sportsmanship
F r e q u e n c y

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

7 6 5 4 3 coaches Adolescents

5

Discipline

Social Values Sub themes

Moral Values

5.7.1.1.1Subthemes of good sportsmanship (a)Discipline In terms of discipline, the examples common to all schools were punctuality, regular attendance at practice sessions and having the correct sporting kit. The ex model C schools were also explicit in including refraining from smoking, drinking, using drugs as well as behaving in the class room as part of their disciplinary code. Players who smoked, drank or used drugs were summarily suspended from the sports team. One coach (High School E) cited the suspension of almost a whole team of girls, 16 years and older on a netball tour following the use of alcohol which had been given to one of the girls by her parents. Others (High School C) explicitly warned children about the dangers of smoking and drinking especially in the context of parties where loud music is played; lights are dim and set a general curfew of 22hoo for players to leave parties. The coaches and players at this school repeated this warning almost word for word when interviewed by the researcher. The same school monitored the players’ behaviour in the classroom as a matter of course and serious transgressions also resulted in suspension. A coach at that school indicated that parents who chose to place their child there did so because it offered both strict discipline as well as sporting opportunities. This was reinforced

71 during meetings which were held with parents at the beginning of the sporting season to inform them of their role in supporting their children e.g. diet, attending matches, players not being allowed to sit with family and girlfriends during the game and to respect the decision of coach. While the other ex model C school did not have a specific rule linking classroom behaviour to participation in sport, one of the netball players reported being warned that if she continued to be

cheeky in class she would be dropped from the team. In contrast a township school permitted children who played truant from school to participate in sports practice after school

(b) Social values. The social values referred to tend to emphasize team work (respect your fellow players, stand up for them, and work towards a common goal) and implicitly carrying out the instructions of the coach, which in some schools was formalised in terms of a game plan.

(c) Moral values Moral values stressed how opponents should be treated (should not be bullied, sworn at or physically hurt although psychological intimidation was viewed as acceptable), the rules of the game adhered to and the referee and his decisions respected. Two schools (High Schools C and F) gave unique examples of fairness, which appears linked to their particular circumstances, with the township school (High School F) urging the eradication of racism and the all white ex model school (High School C) for culture to be respected.

5.7.1.2 Social Issues Coaches also provided information regarding social issues such the dangers of drug use; the appropriate behaviour towards parents, at parties, and sexuality. One coach at an ex model c school gave his players formal lectures on how to treat their parents and girlfriends. Two coaches at townships schools, one of them a male gave female players information relating to sexuality – in one instance this was tantamount to sex education and in the other a warning was given

72 regarding sexual exploitation in the case of relationships with out of school young men. Coaches from all schools warned their players about the dangers of alcohol and drug abuse.

5.7.1.3 Technical Skills Five of the six schools contacted indicated that a major role of the coach was to convey technical skills to players. These skills related to aspects such as ball control, how to execute a tackle, what moves to make, the drawing up of a game plan etc and not to the rules of the game (which was discussed earlier under sportsmanship) although the manner in which these manoeuvres are implemented could be prescribed by a rule. An ex model C school specialising in sport (High School C) taught technical skills in a very sophisticated manner which involved video taping the game and discussing individual player’s actions during a formal session with them each Monday following the weekend’s game. This school also included relaxation exercises and strategies to handle on field pressure as part of their skills training. The school which did not mention technical training (High School F) has no sporting facilities on its premises. It is situated in a township, where formal grounds do not exist within the community while a request to the local municipality to grade a nearby field as a substitute facility had fallen on deaf ears. In other township schools opportunities for the coach to convey technical skills to players in practice sessions are also limited as a result of recreational facilities which are in disrepair, (Primary School B) community facilities which have to be shared (e.g. High School D and Primary School A) and in some instances also have to be paid for (e.g. High School D) for which funds are not always available. Lack of after school transport in township schools means in practice that only children within walking distance of the school can participate in sport.

5.7.1.4 Academic Matters Skills development went beyond that relating to the particular sporting code into the academic sphere. Three coaches, (2 at High School C and 1 at High School E) related helping children with the mastery of

73 school subjects by referring them to extra classes, overseeing their homework, teaching study methods or tutoring the child in a subject other than the one the coach taught the child at school. In addition children from four schools (Primary Schools A and B, High Schools E and F) reported that their coaches had assisted them with their schoolwork, to obtain a sports bursary and advice regarding careers respectively.

5.7.1.5 Health Coaches from four of the six schools (High Schools C, D and F and Primary School A), cited issues such as diet, attending gym and having sufficient sleep as ways a player could improve his or her physical health to enhance on the field performance. In the literature participation in sport is often associated with enhanced physical health. For example Hendry, Schucksmith, Love and Glendinning (1993) found that particularly male sports competitors reported their general physical health as better and their stress levels as lower than recreational and non sport participants; Eppright, Sanfacon, Beck and Bradley (1996) refer to cardiovascular development, weight control and the need for exercise to stimulate bone, muscle and nerve tissue growth.

5.7.1.6 Role Modelling Three groups of learners (High School C, D and F) identified their expectations of the role that a coach should perform. One group (High School C) indicated that the person should be some one they have confidence in, can respect, is an example, have known for long time, would take the problem seriously, maintain confidentiality, have experience with the type of problem, always be available, give advice and even discuss it with their family. These adolescents indicated that their present coach fits this description. Another (High School F) cited their previous principal as the ideal confidant as he was a strict but caring person, who gave them money for the taxi so they could get home and told them to pay it back when they could, helped with their homework, introduced a system of awards for good performance at

74 school and used to start school day with prayers including prayers for their families. This group also indicated with whom they would not discuss their problems with coaches who drink, don’t maintain confidentiality and discuss their personal problems with other teachers. The last group (High School D) highlighted the attributes of an ideal coach as kindness, respect and commitment to helping them as well as someone who inspired them to do their best.

Another facet of a role model was highlighted by the coach at High School C who gave an example of children adopting his example of dressing neatly. This characteristic was echoed by the players he coached in the context of their being a role model for fellow learners. They also indicated that the way they behaved set an example to the learners.

5.7.2 Emotional or Indirect Support The helping relationship, a critical cornerstone of social work practice, is also reflected in the following definitions of mentoring quoted by Dubois and Karcher(2005) namely “ a structured and trusting relationship ......with caring individuals who offer guidance support and encouragement aimed at developing the competence and character of the mentee”.(Dubois and Karcher 2005:4 quoting MENTOR/National Mentoring Partnership)“..... a relationship in which the adult provides ongoing guidance, instruction and encouragement aimed at developing the competence and character of the protégé”. (Dubois and Karcher 2005:4 quoting Rhodes)

During the researcher’s interviews with coaches their relationships with players was described in a variety of ways such as caring, close, characterised by mutual respect and as one of equality. As regards the last concept the coach concerned explained that the only distinction between players and himself was that he had more experience in the sport. Some coaches viewed the relationship in terms of the family context with two coaches (High School C) described themselves as father figures, a third as a parent (Primary School A) and a fourth as a godparent ( High School F). In

75 contrast a female coach (High School E) viewed her youth as the reason for girls relating to her more easily.

Despite the familial context in which relationships were viewed these were not always unconditional with two coaches (one from a township school High School F and the other from a model c school- High School C) noting that there were certain children with whom they were unable to relate to in a positive manner namely those who were sly, lied or did not take accountability for their actions.

There were fewer references to being a friend, role model or sibling (High Schools C and F) and when made were viewed by coaches as being part of the parental role. One coach (High School D) even made it clear to players that he was not their ‘chommie” or mate yet he always listened to their problems and children sought him out for his advice.

The importance of communication was also highlighted. One coach (High School C) referred to having an open door policy while also making time once a week when the last game was discussed and analysed to ask players about what was happening at home and at school. Another coach at the same school expressed the opinion that children did not voice their problems spontaneously and set up an arrangement with teachers to inform him of his players’ behaviour in the classroom which he would then discuss with them. In addition he lectured the children as to how to treat their parents and girl friends, as well as to undertake household chores. It can be mentioned that this coach also occupied the position as Head of Sport at the school and did not teach any school subject; hence his contact with the children was restricted to the playing field. Other coaches (High School D) adopted a more informal approach such as being readily available to children not only during formal sport practices but also by playing an impromptu game of soccer with them during break time at school as well as commenting on the appearance and demeanour of children encountered in the playground. This particular coach adopted this attitude consciously indicating that he spent his free time associating with learners rather than drinking coffee in the staff room with his fellow teachers. A similar approach was reported by another

76 coach (High School C) who found that by being sensitive to adolescents’ body language, he could pick up on things worrying them including expressions of depression and then engaged such children on an individual basis.

Not withstanding the means of communication, boys from all of the High schools, township as well as ex model schools reported discussing issues pertaining to their girlfriends with their coaches. This was not the case with high school girls with one group (High School E girls) citing the reason that they had not known the coach long enough to build up a relationship with her. However in two instances coaches took the initiative to discuss the issue of girls’ relationships with the opposite sex with them .In one township school the male coach (High School D) warned girls about possible sexual exploitation when they chose boyfriends who were working and able to buy them gifts. A female coach from another township school (Primary School A) took it upon herself to provide sex education to primary school girls after observing that parents were not fulfilling this role.

Adolescents and coaches in five of the seven schools (one ex model c School E-Boys and four township schools (Primary Schools A and B, and High School D and F, ) verbalised that personal problems experienced at home, that is other than the issue of friends of the opposite sex, were discussed. The nature of the problems was not frequently spelt to the researcher out although a few children made reference to physical abuse. The reluctance of children to discuss their problems is natural as this was the first time they had met the researcher. Coaches from three township schools (High School F, Primary Schools A and B) indicated that they took up these issues directly with the parents and this sometimes included them paying a home visit or calling the parents to school for an interview. Two other coaches (one ex model c– High School E and one township school- High School D) indicated giving some form of direct guidance to the child and then referring the matter to the life orientation teachers at the school who are responsible for attending to such situations. One of these coaches, a male (High School D) noted that the adolescents were often not prepared to discuss their problems with the life orientation teachers which resulted in

77 him obtaining information from the latter and conveying it to the children. It is significant that this applied to girls and boys. This coach indicated his interest in being trained to handle such problems himself if social workers are not able to visit the school on a regular basis and build up relationships with learners so that they will disclose their problems to them.

Other persons with whom the adolescents at ex model c schools shared their problems were the team captain (two instances cited) and fellow team members (one instance) whom they also regard as friends as well as teammates.

Religion as a support system was highlighted by three schools- one groups of girls prayed together about a problem (ex model c school: High School E) and another group of boys prayed before the start of the game (township school: High School D) while as discussed in the previous paragraph the past principal from another township school (High School F) prayed for learners and their families. Interestingly only one group of primary school learners said they discussed their problems with their parents. This resonates with the review of literature on adolescents undertaken by Hamilton and Hurrelmann (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996), which suggested that that unrelated adults became progressively more important to youth in their later adolescent years. This was discussed in detail in chapter 2.

As indicated in the discussion of the sample all participant coaches were also teachers by profession. There was a limited indication that the teacher who is a coach elicited more positive behaviour off the field. Two coaches, one from a township ( High School D) and one from an ex model c school (High School E) noted that their players behaved better in their classes than in those with other teachers. Another coach from an ex model c school (High School C) referred to them respecting him, not being cheeky (‘praat nie terug nie’) and playing for his approval. He attributed this to the Afrikaans culture, which prescribed the nature of a relationship between an adult, and a child as being one where children did not argue with their elders and accepted the decisions of teachers as persons of authority. In contrast a female coach viewed her youth as the reason for girls relating to her more

78 easily.

5.7.3 Supervision The supervision aspect of mentoring resonates with what Bernard (in Saleebey 2002) designated a turnaround place which provides a physical and psychological sanctuary for children especially those who are described at being at risk due to negative influences in their communities. Activities such as sport, which take place from a school premises, are often viewed, as a safe environment for children and this was the thinking of some coaches from township schools. For example one of the coaches of Primary School A allowed children who played truant from school during the day to participate in soccer practice after school. This coach also argued that sport especially if played over weekends would keep the children off the streets in a community where crime predominates and children learn to steal from an early age. Similarly the coach of High School F viewed weekend sport as providing an alternative activity for adolescents who would normally attend street parties where alcohol and drugs are freely available. This coach also foresaw parents coming to watch their children play instead of drinking with their friends. The children at this school however highlighted time and not the supervision provided by the coach as the core factor indicating that ‘if you play sport you won’t have time to do crime’ as you will be fully occupied with meals, homework and sports practice. They also spoke out about the problems in their community and were the only school children interviewed which did so. They described the most common problems as teenage pregnancies, smoking, drinking, learners arriving at school with guns and knives, gangsterism, children wanting designer clothes, and parents who did not listen to them or give them advice but often hit them. Their suggestion was that the army be called in to resolve the problems.

5.7.4 Sponsorship\ Advocacy Apart from two ex model coaches who indicated that they stood up for their players when they found themselves in difficult situations, the coaches overwhelmingly advocated for their players to be able to participate in sport at a higher level. This ranged from arranging that players play against more advanced opponents, in provincial tournaments, trials convened by professional sporting clubs or to obtain a subsidized place at a school specialising in sport.

79 Most boys from both township and ex model c schools expressed the desire to make a career of professional sport and those from the township schools motivated their decision by citing the names of current sporting stars who had attended their schools in the past. On the other hand they felt let down by these players who never visited the township to assist them to follow in their footsteps.

Coaches from the two township high schools in the sample viewed the material benefits associated with sport as a means for their players to rise above the poverty and attendant drug abuse present in their communities. The township coach at High School D linked poverty in the community with the exploitation of adolescents by drug dealers to peddle drugs at school for the price of a pair of shoes or T Shirt .He made a point of actively obtaining membership for his players with external sports clubs in more upmarket communities as the first step in equipping them with skills for a professional career. He and the other coaches offered players money to wash their cars or work in their gardens to earn money to pay for transport to attend practices at these clubs and in other instances even took them in his own car. In addition as a coach for the junior team of a professional club he lobbied to obtain his players ‘apprenticeships’ for which they receive pocket money, are given school clothing and their school fees are paid. The second township coach (High School F) envisaged sport, either as a professional player or a coach as the means for children to move away from a community lacking in infrastructure, for the family and child to be taken out of poverty and for the concerned player to become a role model for others from his community of origin. He described his role as providing such a child with guidance in respect of budgeting and how to fulfill role as breadwinner for himself and his family.

5.7.5 Social Participation As discussed in chapter 3 the key element of this type of social support is the enjoyment experienced by both mentor and mentee and the question therefore arises whether sport, if allied with competition falls within these parameters. Eppright, Sanfacon, Beck, and Bradley (1997:84) however adopt the stance that all sport as ‘inherently competitive’ whether it involves two teams playing against each other or individual participation. They view competition as positive

80 provided “the child has a supportive environment, is competent in his\ her activities, has good models for learning and is rewarded for involvement” .These authors suggest that coaches should avoid negative reinforcement such as dropping children from the team rather teaching them that “success is found in striving for victory and winning is not everything or the only thing.” The focus should be on children “feeling a sense of accomplishment through individually accomplished goals, emphasising fun”. (Eppright et al 1996:84) Larson (1994) echoes this sentiment when he argues that for the very competitive participant, losing a game would have a negative effect on their self esteem while for participants who measure themselves against the standard of their individual past performance this would have a positive effect.

The group of high school girls from High School E were the only players who reported that they played for fun and the improvement of their game, which they cited, as not only winning but also losing by a smaller margin than the previous game. These players verbalized that sport builds self esteem and confidence because in their words ‘netball lifts you up, allows you to be who you want to be’. This resonates with their coach’s observation that children with problems at home participate in sport as a means to distance themselves from their difficulties.

Coaches at the two ex model C schools stressed the importance of winning and that the children play to win. One coach (High School E) argued that children can simultaneously play for pleasure while being motivated to win the game; that winning only creates stress for players when their parents pressurize them to win at all costs either to compensate for their own failure on the sports field or to use sport as the vehicle for a university scholarship. The male players he coached endorsed this stating that sport provided them with the opportunity to enjoy themselves, build up a circle of friends and become healthier. The different responses from male and female learners at the same school is in line with Eppright et al’s (1996) finding that from a gender point of view, more boys participate in sport as they use physical recreational as a coping mechanism whereas girls tend to use their friends for support. In the earlier discussion of emotional support it was noted that the girls from High School E preferred to share their problems with their fellow teammates who they described as friends.

81

The other ex model c coach is attached to a school (High School C), which specializes in cricket and rugby, and their prowess in this regard is the reason for parents choosing to enrol their children. Sport is thus a very serious issue and it is expected from parents as well as the school governing body to attend matches while the players are not allowed to sit with their friends or family at this time. The actual match is videotaped, analysed in school time during which the reasons for winning or loosing were highlighted by the coach, the performance of individual players discussed and the team motivated to work hard to prevent losing in future. Team selections are performance based and decisions by the coach to drop players from the team are communicated to them in private. The presence of pressure is acknowledged with one coach positing that this relates more to the coach than the players, while another coach at the same school taught players relaxation exercises and included the management of pressure engendering situations during practice games. When the researcher asked a group of boys from this school about their experience of pressure and sport they indicated that it was important to enjoy playing but that winning showed their ability to play well and be a credit to those who came to watch their games. In contrast to this all learners from this school who are interested in athletics and attend practices are allowed to participate in competitions against other schools. This could be because athletics has a limited life span, only takes place for a short period at the beginning of the school year and winning holds lesser prestige for the school.

All schools had a system of rewarding winning players and these included reading out the names of winning teams at assembly where all teachers and learners were present; having special award functions where certificates, trophies and school colours were handed out; as well as displaying team names on honours boards which are prominently displayed in the schools’ entrance hall.

5.7.6 Feedback This related largely to on field performance orientated feedback – either that given by coaches during the game which they indicated was always preceded by the acknowledgement of positive action, or in post game analyses or when

82 dropping a player from the team. As indicated in the previous paragraph all the schools adopted a very structured feedback system for winning teams. One ex model c coach (High School C) had a system whereby negative behaviour in the classroom was reported to him by the concerned teachers, which he then discussed with his players. Only two other coaches (one ex model C ; High School E and one township; High School D) took the initiative to be sensitive to adolescents’ demeanour, to pertinently observe changes in players behaviour in the school situation e.g. on the playground and to share their observations with them.

5.7.7 Tangible Support The figure 5.4 below indicates the types of tangible support provided by coaches to players.

Figure 5.4: Tangible Support
7 6
Frequency

6 Sporting kit 4 3 Transport Food School funds 1 1 1 Clothing Club fees

5 4 3 2 1 0

1 Types of tangible support

Coaches from all six schools, assisted players whose parents lacked the necessary funds to obtain the prescribed sporting kit. While four out of six schools met the costs to transport players to matches, coaches from township schools often had to take this out of their own pocket. In addition these coaches often had to use their own cars and to drop off players at their individual homes, as parents did not come to the school to collect the children. A coach from a township school (High School D) related an incident where a player was injured during a match and he and a fellow coach had to take the child to a provincial

83 hospital for treatment and then to his parents’ home afterwards.

The provision of food by coaches served different needs for example one township school (Primary School A) did this to ensure that children who often came to school hungry would have the necessary physical stamina to participate in sport. Another township coach (High School D) promoted the players sense of belonging to a group when he surreptitiously gave children money to buy cool drinks and chips after noticing that they did not join their fellow players to purchase these items at stops on the way to games. In contrast a coach at an ex model C school (High School C) rewarded players who had performed well in internal competitions with a burger and coke.

As figure 5.4 reflects there were limited incidences where assistance was given to players with regard to the payment of school funds (ex model c school), fees to belong to external sporting clubs and to access clothing for the school dance for those who had completed their final year of study. The latter is significant in that it revealed a series of planned actions by a sports coach at a township school to identify children who would require such assistance at the beginning of their last year at school, as well as networking with companies who hired out evening clothes to provide this service free of charge. This is another example of promoting belonging to a group which according to Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonczak and Hawkins (2002) provides an environment for the fostering of a clear and positive identity while The Carnegie Council Carnegie Corporation of New York (1996) refers to the feeling of a sense of worth as a person being one of the essential requirements to ensure that youth become effective adults.

Conclusion The findings indicate that sports coaches to a greater or lesser degree manifest the types of social support the literature associates with the concept of a mentor. With regard to cognitive support sports coaches uniformly gave direction regarding good sportsmanship which included the technical aspects of the game as well as moral and social values. In addition they provided guidance regarding social issues such as drug abuse, sexuality, how to behave in a variety of situations as well as educational aspects including homework and advise on

84 careers. As regards emotional support, most coaches viewed their relationship with adolescents within a familial context. This was reciprocated in many instances by the adolescents with some children even sharing personal problems. In terms of sponsorship all coaches lobbied for opportunities for their players to gain professional status while the provision of tangible support in the form of sporting kit and transport was also characteristic of all. However feedback on performance was largely related to the game itself and post game analyses and not to other areas in the adolescents’ lives. Supervision was found to be more important to ex township school coaches who viewed sport which is played on school premises especially over weekends as providing a protective environment for adolescents. Finally examples of social participation or the fun elements of the game were extremely limited. The next chapter speculates on the potential role coaches as mentors could play in social work services to youth.

CHAPTER 6

85

CONTEMPLATING THE RELEVANCE OF THE DATA AND FINDINGS FOR SOCIAL WORK WITH YOUTH.

Introduction The research did not set out to explore the ways in which sports coaches could be included in social work programs with adolescents planned by the Department of Health and Social Development. However coaches in describing the forms of social support they provided to adolescents, and as discussed in the previous chapter, offered some interesting insights in this regard. These are now discussed against the backdrop of what the literature suggests social work programs for youth should encompass as well as how coaches could be potentially involved in their practical implementation.

6.1 An Outline of suggested programs for social work with youth Adolescence is a distinct developmental period between childhood and adulthood which, according to Hurrelman & Hamilton (1996:xi) is recognised as such by most cultures. During this period youth “engage in a developmental process by which they seek to meet their needs and build their competencies” in order to make a successful transition to adulthood. The role of the social worker is according to Lawrence (as quoted by Delgardo 2000: 11) to assist them “in achieving positive outcomes from this process.... (in)( my brackets) the design of environments and services that emphasise strengths, asset building and youth adult relationships.” To achieve this authors such as Berger, McBreen and Rifkin (1996); Kuperminc, Emshoff, Renier, Secret, Niolen and Foster (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) and Delgardo (2000) suggest that programs for adolescents should be comprised of multiple components.

Berger et al (1996) view social work intervention to adolescents as both supporting them through the changes they experience as well as providing information and emotional resources to enable them to adapt to this particular life course. An appropriate program, according to these authors, should help adolescents “to manage their emerging sexuality, their desire for rewarding interpersonal bonds, increasing autonomy and the demands of the school

86 simultaneously” through involving “many systems beyond the adolescent and the adolescent’s family”. (Berger et al 1996:151) Social welfare resources suggested by Berger et al (1996:152) to assist the adolescent to understand and establish himself in the social environment; to overcome role confusion in terms of social expectations include “vocational and educational counselling, alcohol and chemical dependency counselling, recreational services and family counselling”.

Delgardo (2000) sets out fourteen principles, of which he posits effective social work programmes with youth should take cognisance. While advocating the innovative use of the arts, sport and the humanities in such programs he emphasises that during the developmental stage of adolescence, these activities must not represent an end in themselves but must provide youth with “opportunities to meet their needs in making the transition to adulthood. They serve to promote youth development, or competence.” (Delgardo 2000:66) According to this author effective programmes firstly should expose the youth to expectations which are high but achievable, as well as making provision for their individual interests. This resonates with what Bernard (in Saleebey 2002) refers to as ‘high expectation messages’ given by a caring adult to a young person. In the discussion of resilience in chapter 3, Bernard cites this as one of the three critical protection factors facilitating healthy development.

Secondly effective programmes actively seek to involve parents and other significant people. Delgardo (2000) reminds us that most people are part of a family or neighborhood culture; hence adults do have a bearing on youth development. In addition when parents or other significant adults believe in youth, they not only reinforce the latter’s goals but through their influence widen the impact on the greater community. He acknowledges that youth might easily perceive that their own parents’ involvement will result in their opinions being stifled in which case he suggests “someone else’s parents and not their own” is therefore worth thinking about .(Delgardo, 2000:84)

Thirdly what Delgardo (2000) describes as ‘inter generational’ mentoring relationships. While mentors are viewed by this author as fulfilling a variety of roles they are also described as having the following characteristics in common namely being a person, usually an adult, who is in a position of influence and

87 importance; preferably a person from a similar ethnic, racial and socio economic background as the mentee and born and raised in the same community. Delgardo (2000) describes the relationship between the mentor and mentees as a reciprocally beneficial one. He cites mentors as being able to fulfill their need to give something back to the community and the benefits derived by the mentees as including the development of social skills, receiving guidance in making decisions, and the setting of goals as well as the promotion of communication skills. In terms of sport he views the mentorship role of the coach as pivotal noting that “organized sports however do need dedicated coaches who are willing to not only provide guidance for youths but can also serve as mentors and role models for them. The lessons coaches impart can well last a lifetime”. (Delgardo 2000:149).

Like Delgardo (2000), Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) combine mentoring with other programs providing this in a structured guideline for youth development which they embody in a “Conceptual Framework for Linking Common Youth Development Program Activities to Developmental Processes and Prevention / Competence Promotion Outcomes”. (Kuperminc et al in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 316) They divide their program into two broad categories, namely people centered approaches working directly with the youth and environmental centered approaches, which seek to change developmental settings such as the home environment or school .The former (people centered approaches) highlights firstly didactic program activities such as life skills and social skills training, direct instruction and remedial education. Secondly experiential program activities, examples being training in respect of leadership and job placement; recreational activities, community service and cultural activities. Thirdly, relational program activities which include counseling, family services and mentoring. These activities (relational program activities) embody the concepts of “personal relatedness” and “self definition” and are seen by

Kuperminc et al (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) as the major contributors towards positive developmental outcomes and as such protect children and youth against maladjustment. Personal relatedness is defined by them as the development of “a well differentiated, integrated, realistic and essentially positive sense of self.” (Kuperminc et al in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 315) and linked to processes such as initiative, autonomy and self-regulation as well as self-efficacy. They view the

88 second concept, person relatedness, as the development of “intimate, mutually satisfying, reciprocal interpersonal relationships”. (Kuperminc et al in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 315) Linkages to this concept are described as the ability to appraise own self worth, and to respond to affection and related feelings .The two concepts are seen as reinforcing one another, and having similar functions not withstanding culture and gender.

These authors provide a schematic design of the interaction between mentoring and other program activities, which is reproduced below. (Kuperminc et al in

DuBois and Karcher 2005: 317)

Diagram 6.1: Hypothesized Mechanisms through which Mentoring May Influence Youth Development Outcomes in Multicomponent Interventions. (a)
Mentoring Relatedness and SelfDefinition

(c)

Other Services/Components

(b)

Prevention/Promotion Outcomes

Path ‘a’ indicates what Kuperminc et al (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) refer to as the differential effects of mentoring where mentoring broadens the outcomes of other activities. They cite the example of a skills training program providing youth with options for resolving conflict whereas mentoring has the potential to reinforce their concept of self worth. Path ‘b’ indicates what these authors describe as the mediated effects of mentoring through the indirect effects of improvements in self- definition and relatedness on prevention and promotional outcomes. They suggest that enhanced self esteem (a self definition concept) can result in reduced involvement in risk taking activities and improved relationships (a relatedness concept) with parents .Path ‘c’ –referred to by these authors as the moderated effects of mentoring where the latter reinforces the content of other

89 programs where for example the emotional support of the mentor encourages the youth to remain in that particular program.

Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005: 326) reviewed three programs with multiple components finding “encouraging ……evidence that mentoring offers added value when implemented in combination with other programs and services.” The value of mentoring in combination with other programs is also highlighted by Finn and Checkoway (1998). These authors found a link between what Kuperminc et al (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) describe as experiential activities and mentoring when they undertook an analysis of various communitybased initiatives, which featured youth. Finn and Checkoway (1998) related the youth’s development of leadership to the knowledge they gained through mentoring relationships, which spanned the life course. These authors noted that the youth gained confidence to tackle more complex responsibilities. Mutual respect, shared responsibility and collaboration were evident between the adults and youth who accepted one another as allies. This in turn enhanced the personal development of the youth as well as their exposure to successful experiences impacting on their world.

6.2 Social work with youth in practice In chapter two, Miley et al (2004) and Gambrill (2006) argued that the formation of collaborative alliances by social workers, with inter alia support networks which occur naturally in clients’ environment such as schools, was critical for resource management. Miley et al (2004:369) refer to the social worker working in a team with alliance members to achieve various outcomes such as “to design programs and services …….to coordinate work with individual clients or families”. Any possible alliance which might be considered between social

workers at the Dept of Health and Social Development and sports coaches at schools pertaining to services to youth should be underpinned by a teamwork approach. Britner and Kraimer- Rickaby (in DuBois and Karcher 2005: 489) emphasize the need for integration of services when various service providers are present to prevent “support overload or redundant or conflicting messages from multiple authority figures (e.g. social workers, caregivers, parents, foster parents, mentors)”. When mentors are part of the service providers these authors highlight the importance of having a termination policy to ensure that withdrawal from a

90 treatment program is not due to systemic issues such as the mentor having a difficult time understanding the child or feeling that the child is no longer interested.

As discussed in chapter 5 sports coaches provided various forms of social support to the adolescents they coach, therefore their potential role in any intervention program would be viewed as being consistent with that of a mentor rather than of a teacher in the classroom although all coaches in the sample are teachers by profession. Portwood and Ayres (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:342) refer to teachers and mentors sharing “the same qualities of caring and support they provide to students” and that students in turn “seek mentoring- type advice from their teachers”. However these authors point out that teachers are unlikely, due to their other commitments, to have the time to engage in social activities with students that sports coaches have and which contributes to the bond between the two. In the research two sports coaches (one from an ex model c and the other from a township school) highlighted the difference in the way children behaved towards them and their classroom teachers.

Before embarking on a discussion of the possible nature of the activities or programs sports coaches might undertake it is crucial to consider the nature of the relationship between them and their players. In mentoring as in social work the concept of a helping relationship is paramount. Egan (1998:40) refers to Carl Rogers’ client centred approach which emphasizes the centrality of the relationship in the sense that “the quality of the relationship with respect to unconditional regard, accurate empathy, and genuineness offered by the helper and perceived by the client was both necessary and sufficient for therapeutic progress”. This is congruent with the emotional social support function of mentoring which was described in chapter 3 as one characterised by trust, empathy, respect, sensitivity, caring, and attuned to needs of the mentee.

From the research it was clear that coaches viewed their relationship with adolescents in a broader sense than just as players. During the researcher’s interviews with them they described their relationships with players as caring, close, and characterised by mutual respect and as one of equality. Some described themselves in familial terms and others as substitutes for non-involved parents,

91 which Rhodes, Spencer, Keller, Liang and Noam (2006) refer to as providing a corrective experience to children. Coaches viewed being a role model as part of the parental role which Egan (1998:41) highlights as part of the helping relationship when he refers to providing a “forum for relearning” where “ effective helpers model attitudes and behaviour that help clients challenge and change their own attitudes and behaviour.” Reciprocity in the coach\player relationship is highlighted by the instances in which high school boys in particular discussed their relationships with girlfriends spontaneously with their coaches. Some children shared more personal problems pertaining to their home circumstances and in limited cases even physical abuse by their parents.

The nature and content of the cognitive support provided by the coaches in the research sample suggested areas in which they could have the potential to run certain skills development programs. Firstly in line with the primary role of the sports coach, coaches provided considerable guidance to adolescents regarding good sportsmanship, technical skills as well as health tips for game fitness. In particular they emphasized good sportsmanship in the form of discipline, (refraining from smoking, drinking, using drugs and behaving in the class room) social values, (respect your fellow players and the coach) and moral values (opponents should not be bullied, sworn at or physically hurt; the rules of the game should be adhered to and the referee and his decisions respected). Catalano, Berglund, Ryan, Lonezak and Hawkins (2002) posit that positive youth development is enhanced when children master moral competence by being exposed to clear standards for acceptable or prosocial behavior such as a sense of right and wrong, having respect for societal rules, standards and moral justice. Authors such as Rhodes et al (2006) and Gano-Overway (1999) encourage using moral dilemmas as what they call ‘teachable moments’. Coaches have the

capacity to use incidents, which arise on the sports field, for example in terms of rules and expected player behaviour as teachable moments. Similarly the videotape of the game used by coaches at one particular school could be considered as a basis from which to extract such information. Beller (2002) suggests that programs should incorporate three components namely knowing and valuing what is right, (e.g. moral values, awareness and reasoning and decision taking) having moral feelings, (e.g. self esteem, empathy, self control and humility) and implementing moral action (e.g. competence, will and habit)

92 Examples of such programmes given by this author which might be implemented by coaches include discussions with players on compliance with the particular sports code of ethics, showing motivational videos, as well as “rewarding good behaviour on the playing field where game officials award team points for wins, losses, ties and good sportsmanship” Beller (2002:3). The suggestion is that the program content not only focus on the values associated with good sportsmanship on the field ,but be expanded to examples which are relevant to behaviour in general. This would be an example of a didactic activity referred to in the youth development model proposed by Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) and discussed earlier in this chapter.

Secondly supplementary or remedial education is another program activity highlighted by Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005), which coaches as part of the school system seem ideally suited to provide. The research indicated that players sought them out for information on educational aspects such as homework and advice on careers. Adjustment in the school situation is critical for positive youth development. Catalano et al (2002) refer to as this as the bonding or relationship a child develops inter alia with the school, which they suggest, contributes towards a growth-enhancing environment. The profile of problem adolescents who come to the attention of the Department of Health and Social Development often includes learning disabilities, parents who are ill equipped to assist them with homework due to low levels of education and a record of multiple school absences. Without educational support, these adolescents perform poorly academically, disrupt the class and when disciplined by the teacher play truant or drop out of school; frequently seeking acceptance in associating with gangs and substance abuse.

A final area of cognitive support provided by coaches relates to advice they gave regarding social issues such the dangers of drug use; the appropriate behaviour towards parents, and at parties as well as relationships with the opposite sex. Delgardo (2000) suggests that counselling and advice giving should be incorporated into activities that “are sports orientated (and) are not stigmatising to programme participants”. He emphasises that this makes the delivery of ‘conventional’ talk therapies more acceptable. (Delgardo 2000:86) This is also in line with the social participation attribute of social support, which highlights

93 enjoyment and fun.

The researcher found two relevant examples in the literature. One is a basketball project conducted by The Graduate School of Social Work at University of Utah. In mandatory workshops held after each game, subjects such as substance abuse, education and training, and employment opportunities are discussed. The participants identified the benefits as “the fun of playing ball, the opportunity for jobs and scholarships, workshops, reducing inter-gang violence and new relationships with peers and adults while parents valued the program for its ability to keep participants “out of trouble and in school” (Derezotes: 1995: 43) A similar example is cited by Crabbe (2000) with the Leyton Orient Community Sport Programme where the social worker interacted with clients after football practice concentrating on building relationships, and responding to their needs but avoided any “structured discussion of drug issues .......provision of appropriate, non judgemental and supportive local opportunities for personal development in terms of education, health, friendship and employment”. Crabbe (2000:388) noted, “it is clear from observation of the project that the participants ......are benefiting from the alternative focus that sports activities provide.”

While it will be noted that both programs quoted above were managed by social workers, Spencer and Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:123) in their review of research on paraprofessionals, under which they include mentors, found that when “ selected, trained and supervised by professionals were ......as effective as practicing professionals”. It can therefore be argued that sports coaches have the potential to undertake such programs provided they receive training and supervision. Suggestions in this regard are discussed later in this chapter.

In addition to the didactic activities for which it is suggested coaches have the capacity to take responsibility, as mentors they could potentially play a crucial role, firstly in the referral of individual cases to social workers, secondly as part of the multidisciplinary team dealing with appropriate cases and thirdly by providing a point of entry for social workers into the school system. Youth spend a large portion of their time at school. The research indicated that most had regular contact with their sports coaches during sports practices, matches and when seeking assistance with homework. Many of the youth used this time to

94 spontaneously discuss personal issues with coaches. In addition coaches also initiated contact with parents when they came to watch matches and some went to the extent of paying home visits. Coaches therefore appear to have a holistic picture of the youth in his environment which suggests they could be in a position to identify and refer individual cases to social workers at an early stage provided they are trained to recognize the symptoms of social problems. This would go a long way to addressing a common concern voiced by social workers that by the time cases are brought to their attention the school has for example already suspended the child and the parents can no longer cope with the child’s behavior at home. This results in premature statutory intervention and removal before

preventative options are even explored.

As part of the multidisciplinary team coaches have the potential to play a one to one mentoring role in the action plan social workers draw up with parents and children to access resources needed for clients to achieve their goals. The research revealed that some parents manifested problems such as substance abuse, which would undoubtedly impact on their ability to be effective parents. In such cases or where parents have been referred to treatment centers by social workers and are temporarily absent from the home, the coach might be able to play the complementary supportive role to the child attributed to mentors by the literature. This is in line with Kuperminc et al’s (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) contention that mentoring is not only a valuable program component in its own right but also contributes to the sustainability of other activities.

In addition as part of the school system coaches have easy access to teachers. It is therefore possible that they would be able to act as a liaison between teachers and the social worker regarding the child’s academic progress, which social workers often use as one of the indicators of adaptation.

Coaches who take on a mentoring role appear to have the ability to make a valuable contribution once the multidisciplinary team has completed its interventions. In the words of Egan (1998: 325) they could potentially provide “ongoing support and challenge for the changes they (that is the youth and their families) are making in their lives.”

95 Finally sports coaches could provide a point of entry into the school environment. For example they are in a position to introduce their players to the social worker, vouch for his or her bona fides and that of the agency he or she represents and so motivate the adolescent to engage in programs, which are offered. This applies equally to the parents. Since coaches are part of the school system parents tend to respond more favourably to their requests as opposed to those of social workers to attend meetings.

6.3 Suggestions regarding the training and supervision of sports coaches In the event of sports coaches being willing to undertake the suggested

mentoring roles with regard to addressing the social problems of the youth, they would need training and support from social workers of the Department of Health and Social Development. Spencer and Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005), Zimmerman et al (in DuBois and Karcher 2005), Britner and KraimerRicaby (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) highlight the role of the professionals in this regard.

Firstly that the structure of the program should make provision for orientation, ongoing skills development training, and formal supervision by professionals as well as informal readily available consultation with a professional when the mentor experiences a challenging situation.

Secondly the content of the training program should focus on the attainment of knowledge in terms of policy and legislative issues in terms of the child care system; the life course of adolescence including the needs and goals of the youth and the topics to be addressed.

Thirdly developing the skills and strategies of mentors to build interpersonal trusting relationships which range from initiating a relationship through maintaining it and finally to termination. There was general consensus in the literature the researcher examined with respect to mentoring that it does harm when it ends prematurely. Egan (1998) refers to not doing harm as one the behavioural norms attached to respect. Sports coaches who drop players from the team due to what they consider poor performance or for transgressions in the classroom situation (as was the case in model c schools) could compromise the

96 trust relationship.

Fourthly ensuring that the values of the helping profession are upheld and in particular regarding the ability to work with diversity in terms of race, culture, ethnicity and class. Egan (1998) includes norms related to ‘diversity and multiculturism’ as an example of the translation of the social work value of respect into behaviour. Two other behavioural norms referred to by Egan (1998) and about which sports coaches and players expressed strong feelings are the antithesis of what he (Egan) describes as ‘not rushing to judge clients’ and ‘being competent and committed’. As regards the first instance two coaches (one from a township and the other from a model C school) noted that there were certain children with whom they were unable to relate to in a positive manner namely those who they perceived as sly, lied or did not take accountability for their actions. In the second instance players indicated they would not discuss their problems with coaches who drink, don’t maintain confidentiality and discuss their personal problems with other teachers.

The social worker would be responsible to monitor the relationship between coaches and players on an ongoing basis. The ideal frequency and purpose of contact between the professional staff member who is the case manager and the mentor is suggested by Weinberger (in DuBois and Karcher 2005). This author proposes that the first contact be made within two weeks of the commencement of the mentor’s relationship with the mentee and thereafter on a monthly basis for the first year to determine progress. As regards the purpose of the contact Weinberger (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) views the caseworker as being available to answer any concerns experienced by the mentor, to take action in the case of problems as well as recommending alternative options which can be implemented. Finally Weinberger (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:228) has drawn up a series of questions which the caseworker can ask mentors during supervision sessions in order to evaluate the mentor mentee relationship. These questions are reflected in the table below.

Table 6.1 Questions staff can ask mentors for the purpose of supervision and

97 evaluation How often are you and your mentee meeting? Does the youth seem resistant to your meetings? Are you satisfied with the activities that you are carrying out with your mentee? How is the communication between you and your mentee? Are there any special problems you would like to mention? Are you able to make the regular commitment to your mentee? (Does the mentor seem overwhelmed?) Are there any red flags that say there may be trouble? What are the positives about your relationship with your mentee? How can the program help improve the relationship?

Reproduced from Weinberger in Dubois and Karcher 2005:228)

Conclusion This chapter looked at social work services to adolescents in general and with specific reference to mentoring. Kuperminc et al’s (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) structured guideline for youth development, which makes provision for both people centred and environmentally based approaches, was presented. In terms of the former the interaction between mentoring and other program activities is highlighted. Various practical examples of mentoring in the literature, which use the sports field as a site, are provided. Suggestions were made as to potential programs, which in the researcher’s opinion the sports coaches have the capacity to provide as well the training and supervision required to implement this in practice. This chapter is significant in that these suggestions can be used as a point of discussion in the planned meetings with schools to implement the research recommendation in the next chapter.

98

Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
Introduction In this final chapter the goal and objectives, detailed in chapter 1 are evaluated in terms of the research findings. Several conclusions are reached; firstly that resilience theory with its emphasis on resilience under adverse conditions resonates with the multiple social problems, which characterize disadvantaged communities in South Africa. One of the various protective factors, which this theory highlights, namely the role of the non-parental adult is the subject of the research. It is argued that since adults such as sports coaches occur naturally in the social networks of adolescents, the focus group of the research, they are a critical resource to be considered by social workers in programs with youth. Secondly the literature study, which refers to such adults as natural mentors, attributes a variety of social support functions to them, conducive to the promotion of youths’ developmental needs. Thirdly the current research, which explored the viability of sports coaches as natural mentors with regard to the groups of adolescent players they coached, asserts that they (sports coaches) fulfilled the social support function to varying degrees. It is concluded that sports coaches are therefore potential resources for social workers provided they receive training and supervision. A teamwork approach is proposed and suggestions relating to the respective roles to be played by social workers and sports coaches in a proposed youth program are made. Recommendations regarding strategies, which need to be put in place to enable sports coaches to implement these specific roles, are set out. The chapter concludes with suggestions for future research.

7.1 Summary of the main findings and conclusions The main goal of the study was to investigate mentors as a potential resource for social workers of the Department of Health and Social Development rendering services to adolescents by fulfilling the following objectives • • • Determining the theoretical basis of the mediating role played by mentors. Identifying the types of social support ascribed to mentors by means of a literature study. Exploring the nature of social support offered by sports coaches to adolescents from the perspective of coaches and adolescents.

99 • Making recommendations on the basis of the research findings regarding practical ways sports coaches could be integrated into intervention strategies to address the problems of adolescents in disadvantaged communities. • Suggesting areas for future research.

Each objective is now discussed individually.

7.1.1 Determine the theoretical basis of the mediating role played by mentors It is critical that social work practice be informed by theory and not by common sense, tradition, media information or the personal experience of the social worker. The purpose of theory is, according to Greene and Ephross (as quoted by Miley et al 2004: 26) to “explain why people behave as they do, to better understand how the environment affects behavior, to guide interventive behavior, and to predict what is likely to be the result of a particular social work intervention”.

In this research resilience theory offered a practical solution to social workers dealing with youth in disadvantaged communities in South Africa characterized by chronic problems such as poverty, substance abuse, and mental illnesses as well as those experiencing stressful situations related to a particular life course such as adolescence. In essence this theory postulates inter alia that the mentioned adverse situations can be mediated through, or moderated by, certain protective factors leading to a positive adaptation by the involved child. In chapter 4 the eleven authors who were reviewed, identified one of these factors as being a supportive relationship between a child and an adult other than the parents. This adult was viewed as being an additional resource when the parent was present or standing in for the unavailable or absent parent. The most common groups of non-parental adults identified were extended family members, teachers, sports coaches and friends’ parents.

A critical milestone in the area of resilience research, a 30-year-old longitudinal study of children born into adverse conditions on the Hawaiian island of Kauai undertaken by Werner (1993), (this was

100 discussed in detail in chapter 4) linked the successful adaptation of a significant number of the children in the study to the mentoring role undertaken by non parental adults.

The direction suggested by resilience theory, namely mentoring as a practical intervention strategy, resonates with the needs of the adolescent. Firstly, as discussed in chapters 2 and 3, studies undertaken by authors such as Bo(in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996), Gotlieb and Sylvester(in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) and Hamilton and Darling (in Hurrelmann and Hamilton 1996) found that adolescents identified non parental adults who occurred naturally in their social networks as mentors. A possible explanation suggested by these authors is that adolescents are more receptive to relationships with other adults during this particular course life stimulated by their need to form an identity separate from that of their parents. The literature designates such mentors as ‘natural mentors’ to differentiate them those who are part of a formal mentoring program. Secondly individual studies conducted by authors such as Sanchez et al, (2008) Zimmerman et al, (2002) Beam et al (2002) and DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) which were discussed in chapter 3, suggested specific outcomes, which could be expected from the utilization of natural mentors in social work programs for youth. They included youth displaying a more positive attitude towards school, better academic outcomes, and a decrease in problem behavior such as chemical dependency and aggressive outbursts.

7.1.2

Identify the types of social support ascribed to mentors by means of a literature study. The positive outcomes studies ascribe to the involvement of natural mentors, which was discussed under the first objective, is dependent on the degree to which they are able to provide social support to the youth in social work programs. As pointed out by Kemp, Whittaker and

Tracey (quoted by Miley et al 2004:351) in chapter 2, the essence of any resource, with whom social workers form an alliance is the ability to provide social support in the form of “emotional encouragement, concrete assistance or material aid and advice and information”. There is

101 considerable congruency between this definition and the types of social support the literature attributes to mentors, which were detailed in chapter 3 namely • Cognitive support This includes direct guidance, giving instructions, providing advice and information, fostering technical skills (in this research skills relating to sport) as well as acting as a role model. Rhodes (in Du Bois and Karcher 2005), also in chapter 3, suggests that cognitive support fosters the acquisition and refinement of abstract thinking skills in youth as well as their ability to monitor self via the values manifested by mentors. In addition that role modeling influences the way adolescents view their identity as well as other social roles. • Emotional support This refers to the attitudes of trust, empathy, respect, sensitivity, and caring mentors display towards the youth, which facilitates the discussion of personal problems and the sharing of stressful situations. In addition Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) argues that the relationship between mentor and youth becomes a ‘corrective experience’ for those who had a poor relationship with their parents; that this in turn is assumed to generalize to other situations where youth will also be able to interact positively with others. • Provision of social capital Also referred to as advocacy or sponsorship, this involves linking the youth to resources or interceding for them in times of trouble. Rhodes (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) suggests that exposure to new experiences and opportunities leads to the discovery and development of talents and abilities, which in turn also facilitate the development of an identity. • Tangible Support The provision of material objects such as money and goods. • The provision of adult supervision This refers to a haven or sanctuary where the youth are not only protected physically by for example not being on the streets, but where their psychological safety is also ensured through a developmentally

102 conducive environment. • Social participation

This refers to activities, which are shared by the mentor and the youth; are characterized by fun and relaxation which can include sport if this is not focused on winning at all costs. Darling (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) in chapter 3 of the research suggested that activities also provide opportunities for youth to be in control and act independently. In addition when the activity requires learning certain cognitive and social skills, these skills are transferred to other areas of the adolescent’s life such as choices of school subjects or a career and endure even after the mentoring relationship has been terminated. • Positive or performance feedback Mentors provide a sounding board for youth to express their emotions and in particular to understand those of a negative nature. 7.1.3 Explore the nature of support offered by sports coaches to adolescents from the perspective of coaches and adolescents. The research findings are compared to the types of social support highlighted in the previous paragraph. With regard to cognitive support while direction was given regarding the technical aspects of the game, sports coaches also highlighted moral and social values under the context of good sportsmanship. In addition they provided guidance regarding social issues such as drug abuse, sexuality, how to behave in a variety of situations as well as educational aspects including homework and advice on careers. In sharing their expectations of a coach whom adolescents

considered to be a role model, a critical issue, which was highlighted, was their need for reassurance that the information shared would remain confidential.

As regards emotional support, it was clear from the research that most coaches viewed their relationship with adolescents within a familial context to the extent that some regarded themselves as being substitutes for uninvolved parents. This was reciprocated in many instances by the adolescents with high school boys in particular discussing their relationships with girlfriends spontaneously with their coaches. Some

103 children shared more personal problems pertaining to their home circumstances and in limited cases even physical abuse by their parents with their coaches. Approximately half of all the coaches interviewed either gave adolescents advice regarding these problems and\or discussed the situation with their parents, several even going to the extent of paying a home visit.

An interesting aspect highlighted by the research was the gender differences in terms of the discussion of personal problems and attitude towards the game. Female adolescents preferred to discuss their personal problems with friends rather than their female coach, as they did not feel sufficiently secure in their relationship with her. In contrast boys shared girlfriend issues easily with their male coaches. For the male adolescent players, enjoyment and winning were synonymous while for females the focus was more on skills mastery and improving their game. It is difficult to interpret the significance of these findings as there was only one all girls group with the remainder being of mixed gender (3 groups) or all male groups (3 groups).

The functional or geographic community with which a coach was associated had an influence on the empathy, which they afforded the adolescents especially in the context of inappropriate behaviour. For example the coaches of the ex model C school specialising in sport focussed more strictly on discipline in terms of players behaviour on and off the field, what they expected from parents ,this being underpinned by cultural norms and therefore acceptable to all concerned. On the other hand coaches from ex township schools acknowledged the impact of poverty and chemical dependence and were more understanding of why children truanted from school, did not do their homework, became prey to drug dealers, and older girls became involved in relationships with working men.

The community in which the school was located in part influenced the emphasis coaches placed on certain types of social support particularly that of supervision, sponsorship and tangible support. For example

104 supervision was important to ex township school coaches who viewed sport which is played on school premises especially over weekends as providing a protective environment for adolescents in communities where alcohol and drug abuse is prevalent; more so where parents also manifested such problems.

Hirsch and Wong (in DuBois and Karcher 2005:366) describe sponsorship as the provision of “important connections (social capital) to significant adults who can help (the mentee) to obtain positions or experience that promote their development”. While all coaches lobbied for opportunities for their players to gain professional status, limited attention was given to advocating for their development in other areas of their life. Engagement in professional sport was a vision adopted by most high school boys, although for those in poor communities the associated financial rewards are viewed by them and their coaches a means for both the player and his family to escape the poverty trap.

The provision of tangible support in the form of sporting kit and transport was characteristic of all coaches, although in poor communities coaches, particularly at high schools often have to pay these costs out of their own pockets as they were not able to access finances from school funds. In one poor community the coach had to provide children with food prior to engaging in sport as they came to school hungry.

Rhodes Spencer, Keller, Liang and Noam (2006:692) describe social participation as “opportunities for fun and escape from daily stresses” which includes “recreational interactions with adults”. Only the group made up of all girls described their participation of sport in these terms. Boys emphasized winning although they did not identify this as pressure inducing despite the fact that their dream to become professional players depended on their performance on field.

Finally feedback on performance was largely related to the game itself and post game analyses with only two coaches indicating that they were sensitive to their players’ behaviour in other spheres and discussed

105 observed changes with them. The above discussion indicates that sports coaches manifest the types of social support the literature associates with a mentor to varying degrees. Adolescents from at risk communities were also included in the sample; therefore it can be argued that sports coaches have the potential to play the role of a natural mentor in the lives of both these adolescents as well as those who only need support to make a successful transition to adulthood. The literature also suggests that the expected outcomes of mentoring will be more efficacious because sports coaches are teachers by profession .Sanchez, Esparzo and Colon (2008:480) noted, “mentors with higher educational levels predict more positive school outcomes.” DuBois and Silverthorn (2005) who investigated the characteristics of natural mentoring relationships within a sample of 2323 youth (as discussed in detail in chapter 3) found that mentors with an educational or other professional background, mainly teachers and guidance counselors, were more likely to increase the probability of the adolescent attending college as well as decreasing the risk of the mentee displaying problem behavior in terms of using drugs or smoking.

Other advantages are that sports coaches are an easily identifiable group as opposed to other mentors who occur naturally in the social networks of adolescents which augers well for their recruitment as resources for social workers. Unlike Big Brothers Big Sisters in America the

organisation is in its infancy in South Africa. On the East Rand, where the research was conducted, the South African organisation has only matched twenty children with mentors and all but one of these are in children’s homes and not in the community. Finally sport coaches have had some formal training in the human sciences which when consolidated by training will enhance their versatility as mentors.

7.2 Recommendations 7.2.1 Recommendations for Practice. Make recommendations on the basis of the research findings regarding practical ways coaches could be integrated into intervention strategies to address the problems of adolescents in disadvantaged communities.

106

7.2.1.1 The ideal situation would be the creation of social work posts at schools so social workers and sports coaches are part of the same department. Since all organizations have their own climate and culture there is less conflict or disagreement when all the team members are part of the same institution. Currently the only government department to employ social workers is the National Department of Education at their Child Care Schools for youth who are already manifesting behavior problems. The Department of Health and Social Development should take on an activist role to lobby for such posts. The first step would be to share the research findings with the district offices of the Department of Education in the areas for which the researcher is responsible as a social work manager.

7.2.1.2. In the short term, it is recommended that a collaborative alliance should be formed with school principals and sports coaches on their staff establishment at the schools, which participated in the research. Miley et al (2004) highlighted such alliances in chapter 2 as the most critical aspect of the resource management function of the social worker. This would involve firstly the sharing of the research findings and determining the willingness of schools and sports coaches to work with social workers from the Department of Health and Social Development in a different role namely that of providing didactic activities in terms of standards of moral behavior and remedial education; referrals to social workers; undertaking one on one mentoring as part of a multidisciplinary team and to adolescents and their families after the termination of social work services . This was described in chapter 6 in the context of the multiple components in programs for youth proposed by Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005). This question was not asked during the current research and only one sports coach from a township school spontaneously indicated that he wished to receive training to provide direct guidance to learners rather than only referring the case to the social worker

107 whose availability to provide services was often compromised by high caseloads.

Secondly deciding on the amount of time to be committed to the mentoring process. The literature only gave some guidance

regarding one on one mentoring. Portwood and Ayers (in DuBois and Karcher 2005) reviewed three extensive school based mentoring initiatives, which included the replication of programs in a number of different schools. They found that learners who met with their mentors for one on one sessions one hour per day during school time developed strong relationships with them which in turn improved both their academic performance and behavior.

7.2.1.3.

Facilitation of the reallocation of community resources which is in line with Gambrill’s (2006) suggestion in chapter two that social workers should look to the rearrangement of the physical environment in terms of providing locations, which increase opportunities for positive social exchanges. The social

participation function of social support requires that the school must have access to space for recreational purposes. The research findings revealed that two township schools did not have sporting facilities on their premises. Although one school made use of the paved area between the classrooms this greatly limited the extent to which sporting codes were practiced while the other was able to make use of nearby community sporting facilities when funds allowed for the hire of these grounds. In other instances attendance at sport practices, which take place after school hours in high schools, is limited for those learners who depend on the Department of Education’s transport system to reach their homes. In poor communities learners who live five or more kilometers from their place of residence qualify for free bus transport but this is only available directly after the cessation of school lessons. Township schools do not possess their own form of transport. As highlighted in the research sports coaches in

108 township schools had to use their own cars to ferry children to matches.

To address this situation it is recommended that the Department of Health and Social Development facilitate meetings between the regional office of the Department of Education, the municipal Sports and Recreation section and the concerned schools. The purpose would be to ascertain the Department of Education’s planning, including the time frames for the provision of sports fields to the schools in question as well as exploring the possibility of concluding agreements with other schools that possess the necessary facilities. In addition to obtain information regarding the sports facilities managed by the concerned municipality and under what circumstances they could be made available. Other avenues to be explored would be to look at the possible extension of the current transport system by the Dept of Education; donor funding of local taxis or vehicles for schools or moving sports practices to form part of the official school day. This is currently the case in primary schools for certain sports throughout the school year but only applies to high schools during the athletics season in the first quarter.

7.2.1.4.

Compilation of multifaceted programs for adolescents by the Department of Health and Social Development. Current services are ad hoc, unstructured and geared towards individual children and their families. The framework provided by Kuperminc et al (in Dubois and Karcher 2005) and discussed in chapter 6 can be used as a guideline to include mentoring, be more preventative in nature as well as group orientated.

7.2.1.5. Develop early intervention strategies together with sports coaches to address the circumstances of at risk populations plagued by gangsterism, teenage pregnancies and substance abused as described by children in one township school. Not withstanding the positive impact of protective factors the words of Werner

109 (2000:128) as quoted in chapter 4 should not be ignored namely that “when stressful life events out weigh the protective factors even the most resilient child can develop problems. As Miley et al (2004:19) point out “social workers are in positions to identify societal conditions detrimental to the well-being of clients- a view which informs the social worker as an activist”.

7.2.1.6. Training and supervision of mentors. Training of sports coaches in terms of relationship building skills, the developmental needs of the adolescent, childcare policy and equipping them with the knowledge of the social problems identified during the research such as smoking, alcohol and drug use, teenage pregnancies and child abuse. The content of the training program including the nature of supervision was discussed in detail in chapter 6. Social workers will themselves require training in supervision in order to support the mentors.

7.2.1.7.

Evaluate the impact of the program referred to in point 7.2.1.4 with special reference to the mentoring component. The literature recommends that social workers should track individual mentors and mentees on an ongoing basis. This can be done in supervision sessions with mentors in terms of the guideline presented in chapter 6.

7.2.2 Recommendations for future research

7.2.2.1 Various types of social support were identified during the research but their comparative impact on healthy development during adolescence needs to be explored. For example, one of these types, namely social

participation, where in contrast to the literature stressing the enjoyment aspect, for most coaches and adolescents winning was more important. This raises a question regarding the development of moral values and the long-term outcomes of pressure to perform.

7.2.2.2 The current research only focused on one protective factor described in

110 resilience theory namely that of the non parental adult. However two groups of adolescents highlighted the positive effect of peers with regard to homework tasks and personal problems. In addition two coaches indicated that the temperament of individual adolescents influenced their ability to form relationships with them. Exploration of the other protective factors that promote adaptation in the face of adversity namely those relating to the parents, the community, the peer group and the characteristics of the individual child is indicated.

7.2.2.3. The current research suggested that sports coaches have the potential to partner with social workers in services to adolescents. The willingness of sports coaches to do, their specific role in youth programs, as well as their feelings and opinions in respect of supervision and training by social workers needs to be explored.

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119 Annexure 1 Interview schedules: coaches and adolescents 1 Interview guide adolescents 1.1 What sport do you participate in and how frequently do you take part-the first question is an icebreaker to put group at ease and to ascertain whether youth confirm to selection criteria of participants given to coaches. 1.2 What has the coach taught you\given you guidance about\(cognitive support) 1.3 Have you ever talked to the coach about important things that are going on in your life or decisions you have being trying to make or problems with a relationship If they don’t talk to coach probe by asking with whom they discuss personal problems (emotional support and feedback) 1.4 What benefit or value has sport brought to your life (sponsorship and tangible support) 1.5 Do you feel there is pressure put on you to have to win your gamesprobe to determine what coach, school and parents expect and how group feels about this (to assess social participation aspect of support) 1.6 Has sport helped you or anyone you know to resolve their problems –if no response probe by giving example of youth who told student that sport helped them to stop doing drugs and gangsterism and ask group’s opinion of this and what the role of the coach was? (Supervision)

2

Interview guide coaches 2.1 Tell me about the sport you coach- what does this involve (e.g. where do you play, how are children selected to play, league or social players, the nature and frequency of coaches contact with adolescents who participate in sport, school’s policy\ structure re sport). This question seeks to ascertain whether the coach has contact with youth only when they participate in sport which he\ she coaches or whether he\ she also teaches them other subjects in the classroom. In some literature the duration of the relationship between mentor and mentee is considered critical although other authors focus on the quality of the relationship. In addition the purpose of the question was to ascertain nature of the game – competition or just for fun and

120 relaxation (support type: social participation) and whether school has facilities for children to participate and who is allowed to participate and under what circumstances 1. Tell me something about the children you coach? If necessary probe for any behavior that places the child at risk, and how the coach handles this as this relates to the supervision aspect of social support. The question seeks to learn more about the sample group and in particular the presence of at risk behavior. The remaining questions probe the types of social support provided by the coach.

2.

Please describe the nature of the guidance or instruction or teaching you give to the youth pertaining to their behavior and actions on the sports field or in more personal aspects of their lives including where problems are present. outcome of this? (Cognitive support) The purpose of this question is to ascertain whether information giving is limited to performance on the sports field or whether guidance is given regarding more personal aspects in the adolescents life such as his career, home work peer relationships etc. The outcome of the guidance is asked as this links to how guidance contributes to the development of the youth especially the at risk child. What was the

3.

How would you describe your relationship with the adolescents you coach? (Emotional support/ advocacy) The purpose is to evaluate relationship - is this the typical teacher pupil relationship where power is very unequal or does coach take on an advocacy role when necessary, is he/ she a friend to the players. Does he\she give them material assistance e.g. transport money to games. Probe if this information re support in form of advocacy and tangible assistance is not forthcoming. This information might flow naturally out of question 3.

121 Annexure 2: Interviews and focus group records with coaches and Adolescents Focus group with High School F learners: 28 August 2007 1) Sample The group consisted of 9Grade 9and 10 learners both 3 girls and 6 boys. There is no sport played at the school, as there are no sports grounds. The learners engage in exercise during PE period during school hours and play soccer on the paved area where there are open spaces between classrooms. Five of group of 9 participate in club sport- three play rugby for a club in Town B 3x per week- two are 18 and one 19 years old. One plays soccer in township V L 3x per week and another in township V. One of the girls only participates in sport when she puts on weight. 2) What the coach has taught them\given guidance on • Discipline- be on time for practices, carry out the instructions of the coach and be dressed in uniform required for game • Values- loyalty, respect • Team Work- respect team members and don’t swear at them • Health- look at diet, attend gym • How to get on with one another-e.g. Don’t hold grudges or fight during games, no racism 3) Value of Sport in their lives Unlike the other groups of children who are in old model C school or school specializing in sport the High School F children did not talk of the value playing sport could have on their lives in general nor about pressure and sport 4) Pressure and Sport See above 5) Relationship with coach. Won’t discuss personal problems with coach or teachers as you won’t be safe - the coach might drink and tell others while teachers’ gossip and tell others, backstab you and use information against you in the classroom situation in front of fellow learners. 6) Description of person they would discuss personal problems with They would discuss problems with the previous principal who knew all the children by name. If you brought a personal problem to his attention he would give advice and even discuss it with your family. Described as a strict but caring person. Gave them money for taxi they could get home and told them to pay it back when they could, helped with homework He introduced a system of awards for good performance at school – they received certificates, medals cups and stars. Used to start school day with prayers and prayed for their families. When school functioned out of another school last year they had sports days, teachers that could coach and also had art, acting and poetry classes. Acknowledged that new principal has been able to ensure that children attend classes and don’t merely hang around the school

122 building and that teachers who leave are replaced- children mentioned that they were only now getting a teacher for accountancy. 7) Sport and resolution of problems Problems they experience • Pride-designer clothes are important because then you are a member of the cool squad. It was problematic for group if their parents bought their clothes from Pep Stores a retail outlet providing cheap clothing • Negative relations with fellow learner- Children ‘dis’ each other e.g. if you are too fat or too skinny. Classmates draw pictures of you on the blackboard and draw your faults. Members of the group retaliated by doing the same thing to others. In some instances they cited being afraid to come to school because of these actions of classmates. • Pregnancy- high rate within the school- related the story of a fellow learner who recently had to be admitted to hospital urgently to have her baby. • Drinking- if you don’t drink you are not cool • Smoking • Carrying guns and knives at school • Wild parties (confer street bashes referred to in coach’s interview) • Gangsters • People living in shacks Feel that soldiers should be called in to resolve problems in community • Parents Parents don’t listen or give advice and in some instances hit them. If you play sport you won’t have time to do crime-especially if sport is played over the weekends. All you have time for is to eat, do your homework and practice. No smoking or steroids as this effects your game, no alcohol accept at prize giving or in the bar after the game if you are over 18 years. The three learners who play rugby found support from white club mates who work, some are teachers and help them with their homework such as the coach’s son. 8) Friends See friends as giving wrong advice- rather do introspection on your own. 9) Sport and Academic Progress No information provided 10) Researchers Observations Unlike the other groups of children who are in old model C school or school specializing in sport the High School F children did not talk of the value playing sport could have on their lives in general nor about pressure and sport. Could this be because they are so overwhelmed by the problems in their community that this is where they experience the most pressure and their only solution to the community’s problems is to call into the soldiers? My feeling is that the three boys who play club rugby might see this as a means to do something with their lives. On the other hand it must be mentioned that they live in another suburb adjacent to community F which has middle class housing, not shacks, has more infrastructure- the clinic and police station which also serve this community F are situated there This was the only group that highlighted problems in the community.

123

Focus group with Boys at High School E 27 August 2007 1) Sample: 9 boys in grades 10 and 11 who play sport up to 6 days a week in terms of practice and matches at school and as members of local clubs 2) Guidance given by the coach (any coach they interact with) • Skills of the game • Rules of game • Team Building e.g. sing a song as a group prior to match, stand up for one another during a match- this is includes the collective intimidation of the opposition if they have done something to one of your players. This intimidation does not usually include violence- they talk out problems, which occur on the field (could classify this as sportsmanship) Most of players are friends as they attended the same primary school and moved to the High School at the same time. Motivate one another and sees themselves as not the only person with a problem. • Discipline-respect for the coach and for one another, e.g. listen to what coach says, and ask permission of coach if you need to leave early or come late for practice. Act responsibly e.g. be punctual for training sessions and matches and adhere to the dress code 4) Value of Sport and Life Be responsible-don’t just come to school and skip sports practice. Enable you to motivate other people, realize that you are not the only person with a problem. After sport go home and help with household chores and do your homework (similar to High School C Boys) 5) Relationship with coach 6) Person with whom you feel comfortable sharing problems These two issues are discussed as one in paragraph below Discuss personal matters with one another, the captain as well as the coach. Describe coach as someone who is ‘there for you’. Coach provides tangible assistance in the form of paying for club fees (if member of outside Club) pay for jackets, helped a girl with a pair of sneakers, pays for transport or arranges sponsorship for transport,( for away tournaments ).or picks you up at your home and transport you. Also talks to parents- he knows the parents and got their numbers from the players – this referred to club coach. Socialize with coach in form of braais at coaches’ house. A coach gets his son to help them with their homework if they are struggling. Coach helps them to develop in the sport by providing opportunities to play against more advanced players such as participation in provincial tournaments If he sees their mind is not on the game he will ask them what is wrong and will try to help them as in the examples given. Captain is often the middleman who conveys problems brought to him by teammates to the coach if he is not able to assist 7) Sport and the resolution of problems Joked about players smoking and drinking saying this happened in other sports not ones they are involved in. Told story of player who smoked weed and could run

124 faster for a certain amount of time before becoming tired and being unable to continue. 8) Friends As mentioned earlier some of the boys knew one another from primary school days were friends then and remained friends because they all came to high school at the same time. 9) Academic progress and sport. If you play sport you do better at school. Feel they tend to work harder at school, to study and do their homework. Schedule their time effectively to fit all this in. Some sit together and do their homework before a practice. 10) Researchers Observations. These learners were able to converse fluently and easily. The interview took place at the back of a school hall, it was noisy and there were distractions with other learners, teachers and cleaners moving in and out of the venue

125

Focus group with children at Primary School B on 5 November 2008 1) Sample 10 grade 7 learners- 3 girls and 7 boys- all Afrikaans speaking. They participate in athletics, soccer, cricket and rugby both at the school while some are members of external clubs (rugby and soccer). The school has its own sports facilities and the children practice on a regular basis at least once per week 2) What Coach taught them\gave them guidance about • Technical skills of the game e.g. ball skills, how and when to tackle • Do your best when you play a match 3) Value of Sport in life • Cricket players indicated that they had learnt self confidence and to believe in themselves • Sport will take you far-playing school sport will enable a player to take part in trials and be selected to play for a club which could ultimately result in you playing for the Springboks. • If you do well at sport you receive school colours, trophy, and medals and certificates- your name is read out at weekly assembly and there is also a separate prize giving function 4) Pressure and Sport No information provided 5) Relationship with Coach Some would discuss problems at home and school with the coach. The coach would visit their parents at home to resolve problems and call in SAPS for assistance if necessary.. Coach will intercede with parents if they don’t want you to play sport. Coach will help players to obtain sporting kit if they are unable to afford it. Coach will help you with your homework 5) Description of Person with whom they feel comfortable sharing their problems Parents. Some of group had no one with whom they could discuss their problems 7) Sport and Resolution of Problems Sport builds you up. Keeps you aware from drugs. 8) Friends Friends want to be like you. Friends who don’t play sport also become jealous of your success – ‘ knou jou af en wil nie he jy moet goed doen’ 9) Sport and Academic Progress No information obtained

126 10) Researchers Observations Prior to interview a very large group of children wanted to participate and the teacher had to be requested to decrease the numbers. Once in the group however children were shy and particularly the girls. The boys were more confident particular those who played sport for external clubs. Like the children at High School D this group was more spontaneous when the recording apparatus was being tested.

127 Focus Group with Boys at High School C on 28 August 2007 at 14h00 1) Sample: 15 boys who are all are members of the under 15-rugby team and their coach is Mr. K Director of Sport at the school. The rugby director Mr. B introduced the researcher to the children and instructed them to co-operate and then left the venue. When the researcher explained the purpose of the meeting and that participation was voluntary 6 children left after approx 10 minutes. A total of 9 children remained for the entire session. What the coach has taught them\given guidance to them about Practice self discipline- were given guidance how to act in certain situationse.g. Love your mother, offer to wash the dishes at home and don’t speak to your girlfriend in a horrible way-‘ moenie met jou meisie leilik praat nie’, don’t bunk school, stay away from drugs and stay fit and healthy. Be tidy on your person, don’t talk back to the referee and have sufficient sleep. Be responsible. Self-discipline is important as you are a role model and hero for fellow pupils and your behavior and way you dress reflects this. There are sanctions in the form of being suspended from the team if you truant from school or smoke or drink Act ethically-sportsmanship for e.g. shake the hand of your opponent even if you lose the game or (if you win) ‘ moenie n’ grootkop kry’, play according to the rules of the game e.g. tackle the opponent hard but only if he has the ball. Builds character e.g. control your aggression, continue to persevere even if you are losing Work together as a team- the objective of the team comes first. Prior to game they go to bed early and do self-visualization regarding the game plan. Maintain good relationships- get on with team members as well as opponents Values ( Lewenswaardes)- stay away from alcohol, don’t smoke and don’t go to late parties Value of sport in life - builds self-confidence, self-image and enables you to reach your objectives in life. Enables you to become a professional player or to play rugby after school at club (Super 14) or provincial level. Make new friends. Pressure and Sport When asked about pressure they replied that while it is important to win they enjoy playing and also want to show their school that they can play well. The principal, members of the governing body, teachers, parents and fellow pupils turn out to watch them play matches Sport and Resolution of Problems-in answer to question from student they stated that sport would keep those children who manifest social problems out of trouble by giving them something to do. They felt for example that an adolescent would give up smoking in order to be healthy to succeed in sport. Description of a Person with whom they would feel comfortable to discuss their personal problems

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

128 Someone they have confidence in, Someone they can respect, Someone who is an example to them, Someone they have known for a long time, Someone who would take the problem seriously, not as a joke and keeps it confidential Someone who has experience in the type of problem and is able to sort it out and who is available to them at any time. 7) Relationship with Coach They described their present coach as someone with whom they could discuss their personal problems. Friends They described their friends outside the team as clever individuals who do not take drugs. Sport and Academic Progress The group did not discuss this. Researchers Observations The group interview was curtailed after 45 minutes, as the boys were restless and wanted to leave. It can be mentioned that interviews with children at other schools were conducted in school time and lasted for approx 90 to 120 minutes. High School C felt that too much time had been lost by the teachers strike to have the interviews in school time. The interview took place in a classroom, which was not conducive to conducting a group interview as the children sat at their desks on benches, and neither the desks nor benches could not be moved. It was also not possible to record the interview as the children were too spread out over the classroom for all their voices to be picked up. All requested to allow each other an opportunity to speak without interruption this did not happen in practice. The group was very noisy and joked throughout the discussion, with only a few children trying to be serious. This was in contrast to the children interviewed at the other schools become quiet after a time of similar behavior. It was discernable that the answers mimicked the information given by the coach in an earlier interviewespecially those in the community are not always role models – for example they drink and smoke. If they drink too much they cancel practices. Their ideal coach is one who respects them, is kind, and is committed to helping them- they would especially like the coach to take them to the sporting trials held by formal clubs and the school of Achievement so that they can have the opportunity to be selected – see point 3

8)

9)

11)

129 Focus group with Boys at High School D 1 October 2008 1) Sample Nine grade 8 learners, selected by Mr. S, a teacher and sports coach at the school. All the children are in the same class. The majority participate in soccer (6 learners) and the remaining 2 in athletics. According to the group the school offers soccer, rugby, netball, hockey and athletics; they do not have their own facilities and use the municipal grounds across the road. The school does not appear to have regular and structured coaching sessions, with transport being a problem if they practice after school hours. The soccer players also play for clubs, which include formal (outside the community) and informal ones in Township R P in which they participate on Saturdays. 2) What Coach taught them\gave them guidance about • Health issues such as warming up exercises prior to game and keeping fit • Respect the rules of the game, don’t fight with or swear at other players, especially the opposition • Respect yourself and everybody else • Technical aspects of the game 3) Value of Sport in life • Keeps you healthy • Keeps you out of trouble- especially in terms of gangsterism, drug use and alcohol abuse which they describe as being rife in their community. When they play sport they have no time to be involved in these pursuits • Soccer gives you a vision in life • Meet new people • Be selected for a major club or School of Achievement where you board during the week, attend school and also receive soccer training Feel there is considerable sporting talent in Township R P – mentioned names of Bafana Bafana players( eg Benny McCarthy)and others who play for big soccer clubs who went to school in Township R P- they are disappointed that these players have not plowed something back into community. 4) Pressure and Sport Peer pressure from teammates and criticism if you make a wrong move during the game 5) Relationship with Coach No information obtained 6) Description of Person with whom they feel comfortable sharing their problems Both discussed in same paragraph They can discuss anything with Mr. S including their relationships with their girlfriends. He encourages\inspires them to do their best at school, stresses the importance of education; the players view him as a father figure who makes them stronger (used in context of helping them to grow). Other coaches, especially those in the community are not always role models – for example they drink and smoke. If they drink too much they cancel practices. Their ideal coach is one who respects them, is kind, and is committed to helping them- they would especially like the coach to take them to the sporting trials held

130 by formal clubs and the school of Achievement so that they can have the opportunity to be selected – see point 3 7) Sport and Resolution of Problems See point 3- mere participation in sport is viewed as keeping them busy so that they don’t have time to become involved in negative behavior. They are not banned from team if they have problems like alcohol or dagga use. They also discussed problems not resolved by sport. They view themselves as being discriminated against in the sense that talent scouts of clubs do not come to township R P to see them play because of perception that people have about their community as only having problems. Finances are critical issue- to join a formal club they would have to pay R600 pa and this is not possible if parents are unemployed. In the informal clubs only have to pay a few rand to coach per week for their sporting kit to be washed as well as transport costs if they want to play outside Reiger Park 8) Friends Team members are their friends 9) Sport and Academic Progress The group did not discuss this 10) Researchers Observations Religion is important to them- pray before start of game. See God as guiding them in their lives “nothing is impossible with God”-see literature, which highlights this, and culture- confer comments from High School C. In comparison with a school such as High School E most lacked the confidence as well as verbal language skills to express themselves. They also became more restless after 30 minutes- a similar occurrence as at High School C whereas at High School E the two groups of learners interviewed wanted to carry on talking and some of interviews were in excess of 1 hour. These children were more interested in testing the apparatus. This could also be due to age - majority was 13 and 14 year olds. This is one of the limitations of the study- although school principals were advised in writing of the criteria including ability to participate in a group the learners referred are often those who are the most easily accessible to the teacher delegated by the principal to assist the researcher

131 Focus group with Girls at High School E 28 August 2007 1) Sample 11 Grade 9, 10 and 11 learners who all play for the school’s open netball team although 2 of them participate in other sports at club level. Ms G is their coach and teacher. In the netball season they practice as well as participating in matches. 2) What Coach taught them\gave them guidance about • Discipline- come on time, respect one another, practice good sportsmanship e.g. don’t fight • Adhere to the dress code • Speak up if you have a problem • Team Work- work together towards a common goal, be patient towards team members, give others a chance to play (don’t all play every match) maintain team spirit - they have a group talk prior to the match. When mistakes happen- don’t blame one another especially weaker player, motivate and pray for one another. Try to fix the mistake at half time or after the match. • Leave problems outside the game • Perseverance- doesn’t give up even if you lose, try and improve in the next game and in future even if this is next year. Practice hard. 3) Value of Sport in life Netball ‘lifts you up’. Netball ‘allows you to be who you want to be- you don’t have to impress anyone. Teaches you to sort out your problems with fellow players or to put your differences aside when you play ‘ Put your pride in your pocket ‘.(see above leave problems outside the game. Teaches you communication skills e.g. able to talk to people, to be self confident, boosts your self-esteem. 4) Pressure and Sport Play for the love of the game\ enjoys the game\ it’s not all about winning. Winning or even loosing by a small margin to a better team is motivation for them. School expects you to win- because they play for the open team you are looked up to by members of the other teams. They have a common love for netball, are enthusiastic about it, they have fun when they practice and laugh a lot and joke with the coach’. If it does not kill you (pressure) makes you stronger’. ‘If you have a lot to do you can do it’ 5) Relationship with Coach Would only discuss a problem with the coach if this related to an issue on the field. Would rather ask the team to give advice or pray about the problem. 6) Description of Person whom they feel comfortable sharing problems with Would ask team to help them with problems or fix yourself through prayer One group member ( N) related an a current situation where she had decided to leave things they way it is as regards someone on the team that she does not get on with. Her teammates are aware of the situation although the other person was not present. The group as a collective urged N to sort out the situation, forgive one another so that “ the thing is no longer on you. ’ This took place spontaneously during the group interview and when the student asked N for feedback she was

132 very positive towards the group’s intervention and felt that they had provide direction for her 7) Sport and Resolution of Problems No time to do drugs and gangsterism if you participate in sport. You should do sport rather than going to the tavern. If you love the game you won’t do this since use of alcohol will result in your suspension from the team. One member related that the girls who were previously on a school tour used alcohol in the evenings and this resulted in their being suspended for 1 year. One of the girls in the group who was involved but not suspended and given another chance related in the group how grateful she was for this. She and the group saw suspension as the correct sanction. They indicated that the learners were aware that the use of alcohol is not the correct thing to do as this is something that you learn at home and it is part of the general school rules. In an interview with the coach she indicated that a parent had in fact given her daughter the alcohol to take to the school camp. 8) Friends Members of the group are also friends 9) Sport and Academic Progress Do better academically because as on the field you try to your best. One girl related how she managed to improve her marks because of this philosophy and despite the fact that teachers labeled her as not being strong academically. Balance between sport and schoolwork is important. If you don’t do well at school parents do not allow you to play sport- expect you to be smart at school if you do well at sport. Coach generally ‘leaves the school stuff in class ’but one group member mentioned a situation where she gave problems in class by always talking and the coach spoke to her about either listening in class or being dropped from the sport’s team. 10) Researchers Observations After the interview had been terminated the group spontaneously brought up the issue of children in the townships whom they described as talented (in sport, drama and dance) but who don’t have the chances they have nor do they have dedicated leaders. After leaving primary school and going to high school all these children focus on is boys and alcohol

133 Focus Group with learners at Primary School A: 26 November 2008 1) Sample 8 grade 7 learners aged between 13 and 15 years old- three girls and five boys. The children participate in netball, soccer, volleyball and athletics. There is a paved area with netball hoops between the classrooms while soccer is played on fields at the nearby hostel. The coaches are teachers at the school namely Mrs. L for netball and Mr. M for soccer. They practice approximately once a week and play against other teams e.g. township D. What the coach taught them\ gave guidance about. Be at practice on time Listen to the coach Respect the coach Don’t be scared of your opponents Focus on the game Participate during practice Don’t smoke cigarettes, dagga, use drugs or alcohol or sniff glue or petrol Don’t bully the opponents If someone hurts you during the game do not retaliate Don’t answer the class teacher back Value of Sport in Life Will help you to obtain a bursary to a school where they emphasize sport and you might get to play Overseas Will help you to be selected to play for a local club where you get paid to play Could become a professional and receive money, furniture, buy a car Teaches you sportsmanship (e.g. don’t bully other players or other learners) Pressure and Sport No input Relationship with Coach No input Description of Person whom they feel comfortable sharing problems with No input Sport and Resolution of Problems Athletes receive food from teacher if they participate. Sport also caused problems for them e.g. other team players stealing their school clothing out of their bags, which they leave on the field when they are playing sport Also talked about drug problems in area – how to make ‘hubbly – bubbly a mixture of cool drink and drugs. They indicated that the police often come to school because of drug taking by learners. Friends No input

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134 9) Correlation Between Sport and Academic Progress No input Researchers Observations These children found it difficult to describe more abstract concepts such as relationships. Their fluency in answering the second question seems to indicate that their teacher has drummed this into them. In contrast to high school children, they discussed a lesser number of topics as indicated in the process described above. This group was however very interested in the setting up of the tape recorder and testing the sound levels.

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135 Interview with Mr K High School C on 27 August 2007 1) Sample Mr. K is the Director of Sport and his unit consists of 6 other persons each responsible for an individual sport. He was a coach in professional rugby prior to his taking up his present position. In addition to being responsible for sport at the school he coaches the under 15 (a) rugby team as well as athletics for the entire school. In terms of rugby this amounts to one to one and a half hours per day and during the athletics season (Aug – March) every day. He does not teach any children in the classroom situation. The school is well known for its sport and is approached for admission outside the immediate community where geographically located. The parent who sends his or her child to the school is one who accepts decisions made by the school and respects what the school stands for- culture. Mr. K described his own motivation for coaching in addition to his other duties as liking to work with people, enjoying it in addition to the task of selecting the correct players for the team. Profile of Children Coached The athletics group is a very open one in the sense that the only criteria to participate is motivation on the part of the child and he does not deny any child the opportunity to do so Although not all are top athletes, most will be given the opportunity to take part in athletic meetings with other schools. There is no particular pattern as regards their intellect or economic situation. In contrast the rugby players are selected to participate by the coach based on their skills and abilities. Describes children who come from East Rand whose parents involved in the industrial sector as’ geharde kinders, ‘ who are used to ‘stampe en stote , het swaargekry en baklei om bo uit te kom’ Sport places these children on an equal level with one another. 2) Guidance given to children The parents are involved once the child has been selected for the team and the coach holds a meeting with them. The purpose is to learn to learn more about them and their children, and to encourage them to act as role models for their children. Talk given to the children prior to commencement of game Norms and valuesrespect and help parents e.g. wash the dishes and make your bed at home Discipline- e.g. attend exercise sessions regularly, be on time for the sessions, implement the rules of the game and adhere to the game plan. As regards the latter the match is videotaped and analyzed afterwards for implementation in terms of the plan. Must do their homework; behave in class (including not being sent to the Headmaster for any transgression) as non compliance will lead to suspension from the team Adherence to the above is mediated by the School’s disciplinary code( eg hair must be neat) and the fact that the children all come from the same cultural group( all learners are white and Afrikaans speaking)and have the same values eg parents support the corporal punishment which is implemented for certain transgressions although this is contradictory to Dept of educational policy. Advices them of the dangers of loud music, dim lights , alcohol and smokingwhen in doubt walk away Respect for other cultures

136 3. Value of Sport in later life Sport teaches them to work hard To both refrain from negative behavior or gets away with such behavior because he is good in sport. Adversity makes you stronger- grow out of losing. Teaches child to accept that like being dropped from the team or not being able to play as a result of injury life also has its misfortunes. By implication this makes you stronger- if a child is dropped from the team or not selected for the team this helps them to accept the situation and to fight back to make the team again. Physically fit and have more self-confidence – the latter enables a child to achieve. To accept that life is not always fair – you must accept the decision of the referee whether he is right or not 4) Sport and Children with Problems See point 3- children who manifest behavior problems in class room are dropped from team. 5) Correlation between sport and academic performance No input 6) Impact of Sport on Children Sport teaches them to work hard To both refrain from negative behavior or gets away with such behavior because he is good in sport. Adversity makes you stronger- grow out of losing. Teaches child to accept that like being dropped from the team or not being able to play as a result of injury life also has its misfortunes. By implication this makes you stronger- if a child is dropped from the team or not selected for the team this helps them to accept the situation and to fight back to make the team again. Physically fit and have more self-confidence – the latter enables a child to achieve. To accept that life is not always fair – you must accept the decision of the referee whether he is right or not Sport is not always beneficial as the sports player is often idolized and can abuse this position 7) Other comments Sport and Winning The coach compiles a game plan, which directs the performance in each game. Children have a limited amount of input in this plan. Each game is videotaped and view the next school day after the match and analyzed by the coach as to why they lost or won. Where players projected reason for losing on the performance of others this is examined in depth. The children are motivated to work hard to prevent losing in future Winning is important and children play to win. However playing by the rules is described as critical. Children are taught not to blame the referee for losing and to accept that any team can be out played on a specific day. 8) Researchers Observations This was the only coach who provided a profile of the children.

137 Interview with Mr. B: High School C 27 August 2007 1) Sample Mr. B is the director of Rugby at the school. He teaches rugby as a subject to grade 8 and 9 learners for 5 periods over a two-week time frame. This includes the rules, history and practical skills and involves a written and practical examination. The latter consists of testing the player’s fitness, strength, endurance flexibility and ball skills. He also coaches the sport, which involves the top teams on a daily basis and the lower ones twice per week. The children play matches over the weekend as well as during school holidays. He has coached the under 14-rugby side for the past three years. As a school they play in the top league with other prestigious schools in Gauteng as well as various local leagues. 2) Relationship with children He describes himself as a father figure for his players. They come to him for advice and often this is with regard to girlfriends. He has also helped children with homework as well as found resources for those who have financial problems such as the parents who are unable to purchase sports clothing, meet transport costs or pay school funds. He estimates that approximately 25% of the children who attend the school experience financial problems and that one to two of these children are in the team he coaches. He describes them as embarrassed and shy because of their parent’s inability to provide them with the necessary sporting equipment He cares for the children and loves them unless they lie or are sly- he does not feel positive towards such children 3) Sport and Children with Problems He reported that children who experience problems at home can be identified by their behavior on the field in that they become aggressive, become involved in fights and generally rebel against authority or are alternatively withdrawn and tend to give up playing sport. Children who use alcohol are suspended from the team. 4) Correlation between Sport and Academic Performance. The child who does well at sport, also tends to be a leader and one who makes favorable progress academically, works hard at school and at practice sessions. The parents are strict, maintain healthy norms and standards and push (“druk”) their children to do their best. He describes this child as balanced which in answer to a question from the student he elaborated as having good manners, disciplined, tidy in appearance, on time for practice, school work average to above average and coming from a home where discipline is important. The average player was often also an average learner academically and was inclined to do want he wanted at home 5) Impact of Sport On life Develop as people Learn honesty Show leadership 6) Impact of Sport on Children Develop as people Learn honesty Show leadership Communicate easily

138 Able to handle stress and difficult situations Self-disciplined Do well academically as they have the discipline to learn for tests

139 Interview with Mr. Ma High School F 29 August 2007 1) Sample He is a teacher and responsible for sport at the school. There is currently no organized sport as there are no sports fields- this school only opened this year and currently takes pupils up to grade 10. Last year they operated out of another school building where there were facilities. The municipality was requested to grade land within the school’s premises so that they could use this for soccer but this has not met with any response. The children currently play soccer on the paved sections between the classrooms during break and also have a period in school time devoted to physical education (Ms N) 2) Relationship with children Coaches role is that of ‘godparent, brother or sister to child’ Speak to coach about girlfriend problems. Coach should determine what problem is and speak to parent. Expectation is that the child should take accountability. Coach will loose trust if child does not respond. He links children to sports clubs in Sunward Park and Actonville, also to sports academies. This helps children to move away from a community lacking in infrastructure and for example to obtain a scholarship overseas. Such a child will still need guidance in respect of budgeting, how to fulfill role as breadwinner. In turn this child will become a role model for others from his community of origin. This is also a means for family and child to be taken out of poverty. Acknowledged that this could lead to exploitation of child. 3) Guidance given to children Discipline- this is about lifestyle and not only related to sport. Respect laws and regulations of game; earn the respect of others you interact with. Take instructions Take consequences for actions Not about winning although we are not friends with opponents when we play but must acknowledge winners. Should not be bad winners or bad losers- e.g do not mock opponents 4) Sport and children with problems As an antidote to alcohol and drug use- learners will be on the sports field rather than community shebeens, which they visit because their friends frequent these establishments. Will discourage participation in community bashes (street parties with music alcohol and drugs). Learners will try out alcohol because of peer group pressure Keeping learners busy ‘ an idle mind is a dangerous mind’ By making sport available after school on a regular basis (activities such as chess for those who don’t want to participate in sport) as well as matches against other schools over weekends. Provides for need for socialization – if sport is available and children become involved in this, they will be able to call their friends out of bashes to join them in sport. Mr. M is of the opinion that this change in environment will result in children leaving drugs so that they will be accepted in the sports group; the child will relinquish drugs and alcohol-‘sport and alcohol and drugs don’t mix. 5) Correlation between sport and academic performance No input 6) Impact of sport on children

140 Promotes teamwork Up lift the name of the school Provides for one on one contact with learners- makes individualization of learners possible)- provides a milieu for learners to discuss personal problems with the coach Contributes to physical and mental development and social interaction. Boosts ego as learner is congratulated on performance in the game (affirmation if parents are watching game) As a means to become a professional sportsperson Health: mentally and physically. Death rate among youth is high (mentioned diabetes) Important for mental health to take a break from academic pursuits at times. Careers: will be able to compete for position as a coach even if this is not related to a particular sport, which he played. 7) Other Comments Guidance given to parents When parents come and watch games at school, child will bring parent to speak to the coach- for this reason the parent will not drink prior to coming to the game as they do not want to disappoint the child. The parent will therefore only drink after the game since friends have already been drinking all day, parent will not fit in with this group (as they are already drunk and the parent is not) hence use of alcohol will decrease. More generally parents and teachers should work together for learners. Parents must respect teachers, refrain from taking child’s word and complaining until the parent has found out what has happened. Referred to past system in black culture where every adult was a substitute parent for the child and would discipline the child if he or she were seen doing something wrong. Feels that not every adult can be trusted to discipline a child in today’s life but that an amended system is necessary( cf role of culture Mr. K High School C) However all teachers and members of the governing body should play this role. 8) Researchers comments See advice given under 4 with regard to attendance at street parties. This is in line with advice given by Mr. K, coach High School C– children told to stay away from parties for the same reason. Township coaches accept social problems as part of the status quo of their players and suggest ways these can be alleviated in contrast to model c schools that suspend players.

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Interview with Mr. Mb Primary School A on 26 November 2008. 1) Sample He is the soccer coach as well as a teacher at the school. The children practice once a week during school time and when preparing for matches after hoursthis relates to under 14s; friendly matches are arranged for 15 and 16 year olds. They use the fields at the hostel grounds, which is fairly near to the school. Approximately 60 – 70 learners come to play 2) Relationship with Children Children discuss personal problems with him. This relates to having no parents, parents who don’t take care of them, relatives who don’t treat them well, not having enough food He does initiate contact with parents but they often don’t care enough to come in and discuss problems. He and the children joke together, he allows them to express themselves but he is the authority when team is playing and child’s behavior on field must benefit the team. 3) Guidance given to children Technical skills – have a game plan. Instructions have to be repeated during games to ensure the learners concentration. Children have potential to make a career out of soccer but often don’t continue when they go to High School. Links them with clubs in community Tells them of dangers of alcohol and drugs Health- diet is a problem as food is often lacking at home. Food is provided when they play matches and coach also brings water 4) Sport and Children with Problems. Absenteeism -they often comes to training or to play in a match even if they have not been to school. Children do not perform well academically – should be referred to Special Education but facilities are lacking. They are different children on sports field where they are able to progress. 5) Correlation between sport and academic achievement No input 6) Impact of sport on children No input 7) Other Comments Financial Problems- can’t afford soccer boots and need to borrow from friends. Coaches in location buy boots for players 8) Researchers Comments Not a very satisfactory interview as teacher had other commitments and researcher had struggled to set up appointment with him. Earlier appointments made were not kept.

142 Interview with Mr. Mi: Coach: Primary School B: 5 November 2008 1) Sample He is a teacher who also coaches cricket, tennis, athletics and soccer. 2) Relationship with children Come to him with problems eg parents who abuse alcohol. He encourages the children to confide in him, he tries to build up their confidence, encourages them to complete their schooling. Parents are not involved in their children’s lives 3) Guidance given to children Skills of the game Concentration and coordination Building up of physical body Good sportsmanship- play ball not the opponent- apologize if you played the man Winning is not important but participation. Shake hands with opponentschildren don’t like to do this, they want to win. Stresses teamwork- be positive, don’t break each other down . 4) Sport and children with problems Problems in area- children have friends who play sport but those with drug problems also participate. Children steel the fire extinguishers at school. Sports facilities are inadequate – eg tennis courts are still unfinished after 2 years Need for motivational speaker to address parents and teachers. 5) Correlation between sport and academic progress No input 6) Impact of sport on children No input 7) Researchers Observation Teacher was in a hurry and interview although previously arranged with the Deputy Principal was very short.

143 Interview with Mr. Sn High School E 28 August 2007 1) Sample Mr. Sn teaches technical drawing and technology and is also the sports coordinator for the school. He coaches athletics and soccer-athletics twice a week in the first semester and soccer at least 3 times a week with sessions lasting 3 to 4 hours. He thus has contact with the children in the classroom and on the field. 2) Relationship with children The philosophy which he communicates to the children is that they are all equal the difference between them and the coach is only age and experience hence he is in a position to help them with what he knows. On the other hand he can learn from them. The coach explains that the children are on an ‘educational tour’ (opvoedkundige toer) He does not experience any discipline problems with them on the field but this does not carry over to the classroom situation especially with regard to female teachers- the children display more respect for male teachers Come to coach with personal problems- often regarding relationship with girls( same info given by teachers at High School C) but also with more serious problems at home such as abuse. The coach gives direction, is supportive and helps child to work through issues. In the case of domestic problems this is reported to the management of the school for follow up. Coach also approaches children on an individual basis if he observes that they seem to have something worrying them-eg body language and they also present as depressed in the classroom situation Relationship with children is characterized by mutual respect Sport and Children with problems Children who experience stress can easily go the wrong way. Through sport they are able to enjoy themselves, build up a circle of friends and become more healthy . For example if a child drinks he won’t be able to exercise and will realize that he is negatively effecting the team as a whole( Besef hy los hulle in die steek)

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4) Correlation between sport and academic performance Feels that the two do not necessarily go together. The critical factor is the child’s motivation to participate in sport which is strengthened by the affirmation given by the school for participation in sport- Service badge after three years and a merit badge after 4 years, half colours if you represent the school, and full colours if you participate on a provincial level. Such performance together with academic excellence results in the presentation of an honours blazer. 5) Impact of Sport on children ( now and in later life) Teaches discipline- attend practice and have correct clothing Teamwork- during practice he gives them exercises designed to stimulate learning to function as a team and how to help your team mate. Builds personal relationships Sport is not stressful if played for pleasure even if winning is important( confer what children in the school said) Sport becomes stressful for children when the parents put pressure on them to win, to be the best- this is often because parents themselves were not successful in sport. In addition parents are aware that excellence in sport can result in a place at a university

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6) Other comments The sports system on a provincial level needs to be revisited as the children do not benefit nor does it help the school. Child observe that they will not come out on top, that there is no longer pride to play for your country as players can refuse to leave their clubs overseas to come and play for the South African team. Children don’t participate in sport after school- these impacts on their physical fitness and they become clumsy and overweight. The Department of Education does not support schools financially when they want to start with a new sport. Some schools provide incentives for pupils to attend their school eg they are a resource pool for the professional league or pay their school fees etc. 7) General Observations Compare equality in relationship with High School C where coach child relationship is a hierarchical one father son yet outcome seems to be the same re child coming to coach with personal problems (Mr. B) Suggestion that the mere fact that a child engages in sport will resolve for example an alcohol problem as the child will have insight that his behaviour will have a negative impact on the teams’ performance and he will therefore moderate it. The literature studied indicates that adolescents who play sport also drink. Conversely social participation is a type of mentoring

145 Interview with Mr. Su Coach at School D High School: 18 November 2008 1) Sample Mr. Su is one of three coaches as well as a grade 12 teachers. He coaches soccer and athletics for all grades. Relationship with the Children Children come to him spontaneously when he plays soccer with them informally on school premises. He does not drink coffee with fellow staff members during breaks but spends his time with the children even those who do not have class or sport with him. He speaks to them on their level. He does not have an authoritarian relationship with them nor is he their ‘chommie’ – communicates with them in a straight forward manner, listens to what they are saying, observes them e.g. clothing and gives them feedback. The children including the girls discuss problems with him and are reluctant that he refers them to Life Orientation teachers at the school who are responsible for followups. Often he consults with the latter and gives feedback to the children himself. Also speaks to class teachers without breaking confidentiality with children to ask them to be more sympathetic towards learners. Mr. Su feels that his fellow teachers are not always aware what is going on in their learners lives eg children who don’t have food and have to spend time on household chores so don’t have time to do homework. He speaks to girls about their boyfriends- girls tend to go for men with cars who give them presents but then break up with them after a sexual relationship. The outcome of his close relationship with the children is that they respect him and do his home work or at least explain why it was not done, behave in his class although he is aware other teachers struggle with this. He cited the example of a child who was very hyperactive in his class, told jokes and challenged him. He found out that the child was very intelligent but frustrated while he had to follow up with other children who were struggling. He gave this child the responsibility for drawing up a cleaning roster for the classroom as well as to explain lessons to other pupils with his support. This child is now in matric and is doing well academically and in sport. He shared his knowledge of this child with other teachers and child’s behavior in other classes improved once these teachers handled him in a similar manner to Mr. Su He also linked him with a club in suburb B and they fetch him for practices. Guidance given to children On the field he gives advice re technical skills, team talks, and acknowledgement – highlights positive behavior before talking of negative aspects- highlights what was good in the game and does not overemphasize losing. As indicated in point 2 he speaks to girls about their boyfriends and also obtains information from the life orientation teachers so that he can impart this to the children regarding personal problems Sport and children with problems He views the children’s involvement in drugs as a means to obtain material things. Many parents are unemployed/ abuse alcohol so children come to

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146 school without having eaten and often also do not have a meal after school. The drug dealers exploit the children by offering them clothing in exchange for taking drugs to school and marketing to their fellow learners. The school then suspends the child, which results in him being forced into a life of drug dealing to support himself. He was previously a professional soccer player and currently coaches a PSL youth team. In this capacity he has access to players old football boots, which he gives out, at the school. Mr. Su considers poverty to be the main debilitating factor in this community. The children feel so overwhelmed by the situation that they accept it as a way of life, do not see any opportunities and generally give up. Although he and other teachers offer them money to wash their cars or work in their gardens the children are reluctant to do so. They adopt their parents’ attitude that everything is the teachers responsibility e.g. teachers must take pupils to matches and tournaments even when held over weekends. At these functions the school provides lunch but the coach pays for any extras such as cool drinks or ice creams. Another example of material support is regarding the matric dance. At the beginning of the year he identifies children who can’t afford to attend and gives them jobs to do for payment. Also reached out to a fashion company to hire clothing for dance at no cost. He goes with them to choose the clothing and sometimes also puts in money for them. 5) Correlation between sport and academic progress No input Impact of Sport on children Mr. S viewed this from the perspective of sport enabling children to escape the poverty trap. He links the children with potential to local clubs as well as to the PSL Youth Teams and takes them personally so that they can attend trials. Children often lack transport costs to get to club venues – he transports the ones to club near his residence and gives them opportunities to earn money for transport He views this as a means for the children to escape from the poverty of the community- if selected for the under 19 team they are offered a two year apprenticeship where the club pays for their school fees clothing and R1000 pocket money per year. This contract can be extended if they are good enough to be selected for the senior team; if not they are selected to play for other tournaments where they are provided with transport costs as well as receiving cash bonuses for every match the team wins. Once they finish school the other monies (school fees and school clothing) are added to their pocket money. Other comments Limitations of School Sport. Practices take place on average twice per month for two hours after school. Only children who live within walking distance of the school can participate as transport to other areas (the school accepts children from School F and suburb D) is only available immediately after school, for this reason his attempt to introduce practices during a last school period which is only 40 minutes duration was not successful. In addition the school does not have sports fields and has to pay if they want to use community facilities. The

6)

7)

147 school cannot always afford to pay, as they need to put their limited funds into academic matters. He has a private arrangement with the municipal facilities over the road from the school that allow the school to use their fields free of charge as a favor although other users of the facility who have to pay have complained. The result of the transport and playing field limitations is that child who already plays for clubs are selected for school teams and others are not afforded the opportunity. Transport is also a problem with away matches- they make use of taxis and teachers use their own cars without compensation. He cited an incident where they had to take a child who was injured during the game to a state hospital which was far away, wait there for the child to be discharged, take the child home and report for duty at the school at the normal time although he was up most of the night. The school also does not support the teachers financially by paying fees or with transport to coaching clinics. Social Work Services Social workers need to come to school regularly to build up relationships with the children so that they feel free to discuss their problems. He would be interested in attending a course presented by social workers to update his knowledge as to how to handle learner’s personal problems as well as to be involved in follow up sessions with social workers to discuss practical issues and receive support. 8) Researchers Observation. A sports coach assisted Mr. Su when he was young- this person was a teacher at High School D and lived in the same community as Mr. Su. He used to transport the children to High School D every Saturday to play soccer. Through this route Mr. Su became a professional soccer player for a club outside SA. This has motivated him to try and help players in similar circumstances. As was the case with other coaches from township schools the emphasis is on helping children to overcome the social problems present in their communities.

148 Interview with Ms L Coach High School E (Girls) School 31 August 2007. 1) Sample Ms L is the Head of Department for Sport, the manager for all netball played at the school as well as the coach for the open girls netball team. Coaching takes place at the school every Monday to Thursday between 13hoo and 17hoo. She is also a teacher of business economics and in this capacity sees all the players in the classroom situation. 2) Relationship with children The players in the previous open netball team, which she coached, approached her spontaneously with their personal problems rather than their other teachers. She views this to her being young and seen as a person who can therefore understand the problems of teenagers. The present team she is coaching do not share personal problems to the same extent which she attributes to their lack of maturity ( they are younger than the previous members of the open team)as well as the shorter duration of time for which she has been their coach. She gives the players direct guidance regarding the problems they share with her and uses her own judgment as to when to discuss these issues with their parents. In the case of players found to use alcohol on netball tour she had joint sessions with the parents and adolescents .Ms L regards this behavior as totally unacceptable and the players were all suspended from the team. 3) Guidance given to children She gives the players guidance in respect of the technical aspects of the sport, homework, careers, behavior in class and problems with boyfriends and parents. 4) Sport and Children with Problems She has had limited experience with children who use alcohol and drugs other than the situation described in the previous paragraph. Her viewpoint is that if children are kept busy with sport they will not indulge in such behavior. For this reason as Head of Department for Sport she is introducing a policy next year that will require all children to participate in two sporting codes. Athletics, which is limited to the first school term, will be compulsory and the children can choose the second sport. Ms L is of the opinion that the current team she coaches uses sport to stay at school longer and so avoid problems at home. She deduces this from the fact that they attend weekday as well as Saturday practices regularly 5) Correlation between Sport and Academic Performance She indicated that the majority of players ‘shine ‘ academically although there are two average performers and one who is below average. She views fresh air and exercise as stimulating brain activity 6) Impact of sport on children Sport should be a source of fun and enjoyment for children and a support for the pressure they experience from the academic demands of school life.

149 7) Researchers Observations During a prior focus group with the netball players on 27 August 2007 they indicated that they preferred to discuss personal problems with their teammates who are also their friends rather than the coach who they have not known long enough. This is in line with the opinion expressed by the coach.

150 Interview with Ms Lo Coach: Primary School A: 26 November 2008 1. Sample She teaches life orientation and one of the outcomes is physical development, which encompasses sport. She is responsible for organizing sport at the school, also coaches’ athletics and sometimes netball. Grade 4 to 7 learners participate in sport every Wednesday between 12noon and 14hoo during the activity period of the school day. They have a satellite school at Primrose and between this school and the one at informal settlement D they choose two teams for netball and soccer to compete against schools in the Township V area as they are not competent to be part of the Germiston school circuit in which area both schools are situated. However they do compete in this circuit in respect of athletics. A number of their pupils are over the age of 13years and not eligible to participate in formal primary school fixtures but they are involved in sport during the activity period mentioned earlier. They have netball facilities at the school but have to go to the nearby men’s hostel to play soccer and volleyball on the latter’s grounds. The grounds across the road from the school entrances are inhabited by squatters hence they cannot be developed into sporting facilities. Relationship with children Sees herself as parent to the children. She describes biological parents as not interested in coming to watch the children play sport. If the children play away games parents do not even come to the school to fetch them and schoolteachers have to take them home. Even when games are played at the hostel in informal Settlement D the parents although they live in the surrounding area do not attend matches. Children need considerable emotional support, as they feel looked down upon by children from other schools Sex education is undertaken by coach –e.g. advice re menstruation to the extent that school provides pupils with sanitary towels Considerable amount of material assistance given in form of food prior to participation in sport against other schools as the children often come to school hungry. In past children fainted while participating in sport. High amount of poverty in area- only 25% of children would be able to participate in away matches if parents had to pay transport costs. School sources donors and uses budget from Dept of Education to pay transport costs by bus and taxi as well as to purchase sporting kit. Children are rewarded with medals and this form of tangible affirmation is important to them. Guidance given to children What to eat Behavior on the field- not to bully or fight with opponents ( kinders ruk hand uit en baklei) or retaliate if they hurt you. Respect the decisions of referee. Bring problems in respect of opponent’s poor behavior or referee’s decisions to coach Listen to the coach Skills of the particular sporting code.

2.

3.

151 4. Sport and children with Problems Crime predominates in the area and children learn to steal from an early age. Sport especially if it could be played over weekends will keep the children out of the streets. Community should be involved in such projects. Other problems in community include HIV Aids, teenage pregnancies, prostitution, overcrowding as a result of residents from other provinces coming into the area. ‘Kinders raak te gou groot. Kinders is stout en ruk hand uit’. Translation -children develop too quickly. Children are naughty and disobedient Correlation between sport and academic performance No input Impact of Sport on children Sport as a career – children described as not strong academically but progress above average in sport Sport is a means for them to make money either as a professional player or professional coach. Described case of a girl who obtained a scholarship to go to sports school but parents refused to give their permission- this girl later became a teenage mother. Researchers Observation As indicated by other coaches in township schools sport is seen as a way out of poverty and there is also a significant awareness of social problems in the community.

5.

6.

7.

152 Interview with Mr. Le Coach High School C: 28 August 2007 1) Sample He is the cricket director and coaches the first cricket team and under 14 rugby. In addition he teaches life orientation and is involved in marketing and the cricket academy at the school. Relationship with children He makes the children aware of the aims and objectives that need to be achieved in a particular game during practice and in the classroom. This is determined by the drawing up of a game plan in which he takes the leading role but the children also provide inputs. The purpose of the game plan is to acquaint very team member with their particular role and is also informed by knowledge of the opposing team. The game is videotaped and is analysed on Monday after a weekend game – this would include looking at reasons why they lost. He teaches the children how to handle pressure in the game by creating pressure situations during practice sessions. For example he makes them run and when they are tired start to play so that they can realize what an impact this has on their performance. He feels that the children pressurize themselves because they experience loss of prestige if they play badly. He stresses to the children that they must never fear failure. He considers there is more pressure on the coach to be calm, remain positive and not swear and curse. Stresses the psychological part of the game- gives relaxation exercises to focus and Team sport – stresses positive mindset and to implement this he speaks to each child before he goes in to play making sure he knows what the situation on the field is and gives him words of encouragement. Children discuss problems with him spontaneously- he has an open door policy regarding their contacting him. He knows what is going on in their lives. He asks them how things are at home, the marks at school and about their girlfriends. This is done on a Monday when they analyze the game. He describes the relationship as characterized by mutual trust He also shares how he is feeling with the children. He describes himself as their friend father and role model eg always neatly dressed (can one fulfill such diverse roles) He is in close contact with the team captain who knows the children well as who is able to provide information. He stands up for the children if they experience problems. He gives them individual responsibilities re tasks to be carried out for the team. Gives children challenges by having competitions between teams and rewarding them with a burger and coke. Gives them acknowledgement by always finding something positive to say about them. Also have names placed on honours board at school or receive trophy for good performance Guidance given to children Sets limits both to children),eg to leave parties by 22h00 and gives guidance to parents re what they may not eat (cakes) as well as their role regarding matches-they must be positive supporters and respect the decision of the coach .If they have concerns about how the match was played they may phone the coach on the Monday after the game but may not interfere while the game is

2)

3)

153 being played If children break the rules they must be punished and this means being dropped from the team. He refers them for extra classes in school subjects, helps wit study methods and study timetable During games the children cannot sit with their friends or girl friends See point 2 above for guidance given regarding the handling of pressure. 4) Sport and Children with problems This is catered for by the school system- e.g. use the police to look for drugs at school, corporal punishment, codes of behavior, parents choose to place child in the school because it offers strict discipline as well as sporting opportunities, it is prestige for their child to be selected for a team Correlation between sport and academic performance No input Impact of Sport on children It teaches them life skills- How to handle pressure by talking about it, respect for others. Discipline in respect of schoolwork and in their social life, to be neat in their dress Researchers Observations Guidance given re behavior towards parents and at parties is the same as that provided by Mr. K a coach at the same school and is obviously school policy

5)

6)

7)

154 Annexure 3: Analysis of Themes and Subthemes of social support 1.Cognitive Skills 1.1Good Sportsmanship1.1.1Discipline-

Examples given by coaches Attend exercise sessions regularly, be on time for the sessions

Name of School High School C

Examples given by children Be on time for practice/game

Attend practice

High School E (Boys) High School E (Boys)

Participate during practice Adhere to dress code at practice, during matches and at school (Be tidy on your person at school)

Name of School Primary School A High School E (Girls) High School F High School E (Boys) Primary school A High School E (Girls) High School C High School E (Boys) Primary school A High School C

Have correct clothing

Don’t answer the class teacher back Go to bed early prior to the game Take consequences for actions During games the children cannot sit with their friends or girl friends 1.1 Good Sportsmanship Examples given by coaches a. Adhere to the game plan. High School F High School C

Name of School a. High School C b. High School F c. Primary School A

Examples given by children Follow the game plan

Name of School High School C Primary school A High School F High

1.1.2Social Values e.g. loyalty, dedication, b. Take sacrifice, instructions teamwork and good citizenship c. Coach gives instructions- he

Carry out the instructions of the coach; listen to the coach

155 is the authority on the field d. Listen to coach ( coach1) School E (Boys)

d. Primary School A ( coach2) Respect the coach Primary School A High School E (Boys) High School E (Girls) High School D High School F High School E (Boys) High School E (Girls)

Teamworkduring practice he gives them exercises designed to stimulate learning to function as a team and how to help your team mate. Teamwork

High School E (Boys)

Respect team mates

High School F

Work together towards a common goal Give all a chance to play

High School E (Girls) Stand up for your High team mates- this School E includes (Boys) intimidating the opposition by how you look at them. Don’t be scared Primary of your School A opponents Motivate one High another- team School E talk and team (Girls) song High School E (Boys) Motivate yourself-e.g. through self High School C

156 visualization Don’t blame your team mates if they make mistakes, be patient towards team members don’t fight with them and don’t hold grudges Maintain good relationships with team members; work together as a team Do your best; practice hard persevere even if you are losing; don’t give up High School C High School E (Girls) High School F

Leave your problems outside the game. Focus on the game

Primary School B High School C High School E (Girls) High School E (Girls) Primary School B

Show loyalty and High respect School F 1.1.3 Moral values e.g. “ honesty, fairness, fair play, justice and responsibility” Do not to bully or fight with opponents ( kinders ruk hand uit en baklei) or retaliate if they hurt you Primary School A a. Children are taught not to blame the referee for losing. b. Respect the decisions of referee Primary School A Don’t bully, fight School D or swear at the High opponents, If Primary someone hurts School A you during a game do not retaliate

a. High School C

Don’t talk back to the referee

High School C

b. Primary School A

157 Bring problems in respect of opponent’s poor behavior or referee’s decisions to coach

Implement the High School rules of the game C

Respect rules of the game, only tackle the opponent if he has the ball

High School D High School C High School E (Boys)

Respect laws High School and regulations F of game; earn the respect of others you interact with. Respect for other cultures 1. Winning is important and children play to win. However playing by the rules is described as critical. Children are taught not to blame the referee for losing and to accept that any team can be out played on a specific day. Sport is not stressful if played for pleasure even if winning is important Sport becomes stressful for children when the parents put High School C 1. High School C No racism High School F High School C

1.1.4Winning

High School E (Boys)

158 pressure on them to win, to be the best- this is often because parents themselves were not successful in sport. In addition parents are aware that excellence in sport can result in a place at a university. Not winning although we are not friends with opponents when we play but must acknowledge winners. Should not be bad winners or bad losers- e.g. do not mock opponents High School about F

Shake the hand of the opponent even if you loose the game Don’t be big headed/ boastful if you win Play for love of the game- its not all about winning

High School C

High School C High School E (Girls)

1.2 Acts as a role model

Examples given by coaches He describes himself as their friend father and role model e.g. always neatly

Name of School High School C

Examples given by children Inspires them to do their best

Name of School High School D

159 dressed

1.3Technical Skills .

Examples given by coaches a. The coach compiles a game plan, which directs the performance in each game. Children have a limited amount of input in this plan. Each game is videotaped and view the next school day after the match and analysed by the coach as to why they lost or won. Where players projected reason for losing on the performance of others this is examined in depth. The children are motivated to work hard to prevent losing in future. b. He teaches the children how to handle pressure in the game by creating pressure situations during practice sessions. For example he makes them run and when they are tired start to play so that they can realize what an impact this has on their

Name of School a.. High School C (Mr. K)

Examples given by children Ball skills, how and when to tackle Technical aspects of game Skills of the game

Name of School Primary School B High School D

High School E (Boys)

b. Mr. Le High School C

160 performance. Stresses the psychological part of the gamegives relaxation exercises to focus. c. Technical skills, team talks d. Technical skills, game plan 1.4.. Behaviour Toward parents and girlfriends Examples given by coaches Talk given to the children prior to commencement of game. Teaches them norms and values- respect and help parents e.g. wash the dishes and make your bed at home The parents are involved once the child has been selected for the team and the coach holds a meeting with them. The purpose is to learn to learn more about them and their children, and to encourage them to act as role models for their children. Name of School Mr K High School C Examples given by children Love your mother, offer to wash dishes at home, how to speak to girlfriend Name of School High School C

c. High School D d. Primary School A ( Both coaches)

Mr K High School C Social Problems not discussed with parents Relationship differs in township schools where teacher almost takes on role of social worker

gives guidance

Mr. Le

161 to parents re High School what they may C not eat (cakes) as well as their role regarding matches-they must be positive supporters and respect the decision of the coach Speaks to High parents when School F they come to watch games. Aware that parents have alcohol problems. Parents complain High School about teachers without D obtaining facts. Parents’ attitude that everything is the teachers responsibility He refers them for extra classes in school subjects, helps with study methods and study time table (Mr Le High School C) helped children with homework ( Mr B- High School C) Help with school subjects – not the one she teaches Advice re careers Must do their homework; behave in class

4. School situation

High School C

Help with school work

Primary School B High School F

High School E (Girls)

In classroom

High School E (Girls) High School C

Behaviour in High class room linked School E with being team (Girls)

162 (including not being sent to the Headmaster for any transgression) as non compliance will lead to suspension from the team. member but only occasionally – usually coach leaves school stuff in classroom

He does not experience any discipline problems with them on the field but this does not carry over to the classroom situation especially with regard to female teachers- the children display more respect for male teachers.

High School E (Boys) Coach Also speaks to relationship –similar to High School D Coach. Indicates again value of firm disciplineresearch and parents

The outcome of his close relationship with the children is that they respect him and do his home work or at High School least explain D why it was not done, behave in his class although he is aware other teachers struggle with this. Children who are absent from school are allowed to come to practice sessions and Primary

163 play matches School A

5. Problems

Sees it as her role to follow up problems with parents . Cited an example of when she spoke to parents and children re alcohol use while girls were on tour when this was brought to her attention. Says while she respects girl coming to her in confidence as a teacher she needed to follow this up as it contravened school rulesgirls involved were suspended although a parent had given alcohol to her daughter to take on tour. Reflects on relationship and discipline- see emotional support Advices them of the dangers of loud music, dim

High School E (Girls)

Help to obtain bursary to school where they concentrate on sport Stresses importance of education Coaches son helped with homework Don’t’ smoke cigarettes, dagga, drugs alcohol, sniff glue or petrol

Primary School A

High School D High School F Primary School A

High School C

Stay away from alcohol, don’t smoke and go to

High School E (Girls)

164 lights , alcohol and smokingwhen in doubt walk away Sets limits both to children ),e.g. to leave parties by 22hoo As an antidote to alcohol and drug use- learners will be on the sports field rather than community shebeens, which they visit because their friends frequent these establishments. Will discourage participation in community bashes (street parties with music alcohol and drugs) Keeping learners busy ‘ an idle mind is a dangerous mind’ By making sport available after school on a regular basis (activities such as chess for those who don’t want to participate in sport) as well as matches against other schools over weekends. Provides for need for socialization – if sport is available and children become involved High School C late parties. High School C

High School F

165 in this, they will be able to call their friends out of bashes to join them in sport. Mr. M is of the opinion that this change in environment will Primary result in children School A leaving drugs so ( coach 1) that they will be accepted in the sports group.

Cautions them against use of alcohol and drugs Crime predominates in the area and children learn to steal from an early age. Sport especially if it could be played over weekends will keep the children out of the streets. Community should be involved in such projects. Other problems in community include HIV Aids, teenage pregnancies, prostitution, overcrowding as a result of residents from other provinces coming into the area. Kinders raak te gou groot. Kinders is stout en ruk hand Primary School APrimary ( coach2 )

166 uit

Use the police to look for drugs at school, corporal punishment and codes of behavior in place. Parents choose to place child in the school because it offers strict discipline as well as sporting opportunities, it is prestige for their child to be selected for a team Can identify children with problems but does not see a place of them in sports team He reported that children who experience problems at home can be identified by their behavior on the field in that they become aggressive, become involved in fights and generally rebel against authority or are alternatively withdrawn and tend to give up playing sport. Views sport as keeping them busy, helping them to live a clean drug free

High School C

High School C

High School E (Girls)

167 life. On this basis is arranging compulsory athletics program next and practice will be in school time. Coaches observation that girls with problems at home participate in sport as a means to distance themselves from problems Children who experience stress can easily go the wrong way. Through sport they are able to enjoy themselves, build up a circle of friends and become more healthy

High School E (Girls)

High School E (Boys)

He views the High children’s School D involvement in drugs as a means to obtain material things. Many parents are unemployed/ abuse alcohol so children come to school without having eaten and often also do not have a meal after school. The drug dealers exploit the children by offering them clothing in exchange for

168 taking drugs to school and marketing to their fellow learners. The school then suspends the child, which results in him being forced into a life of drug dealing to support himself.

Impact of classroom behaviour on inclusion in sports team

Must do their homework; behave in class (including not being sent to the Headmaster for any transgression) as non compliance will lead to suspension from the team.

High School C

Behaviour in High class room linked School E with being team (Girls) member but only occasionally – usually coach leaves school stuff in classroom

6. Health Issues

Examples given by coaches

Name of School

Examples given by children Have sufficient sleep Look at diet, attend gym

Name of School High School C School D High

Health: mentally and physically Physical health e.g diet and drinking water Tangible Support Examples given by coaches

High School F Primary School A Name of School Examples given by children Name of School

Sporting kit

a. Found a. High resources for School C those who have financial problems such as

Pays for sporting kit

Primary School B High School E (Boys)

169 the parents who are unable to purchase sports clothing. b High b. Obtains soccer School D boots from professional PSL players c. School purchases sporting kit High School F

c Primary School A

Food

Transport

School provides lunch and coach extras such as ice cream and cool drink Meet transport costs

High School D

Food when they participate in matches

Primary School A

High School C High School D ( out of coaches pocket) Primary School A

Money for transport

High School D High School E (Boys)

Club fees

Pays club fees

High School E (Boys)

School funds Clothing

Pay school funds Clothing for Matric dance

High School C High School D

Emotional Support Discuss personal problems with coach

Examples given by coaches Coach should determine what problem is and speak to parent.

Name of School High School F Primary School B

Examples given by children Discuss problems at home and school with coach – including physical abusecoach visits parents at home to discuss

Name of School Primary School B

High

170 problems. Can discuss anything with coach Discuss personal problems with coach Child discusses Primary personal School A problems eg insufficient food and poor treatment by parents and relatives. Coach speaks to parents Discussion of High School D personal problems The children including the girls discuss problems with him and are reluctant that he refers them to Life Orientation teachers at the school who are responsible for follow-ups. Often he consults with the latter and gives feedback to the children himself. Also speaks to class teachers without breaking confidentiality with children to ask them to be more sympathetic towards learners. Sex education is undertaken by Primary School A School D

High School E (Boys)

171 coach –e.g. advice re menstruation to the extent that school provides pupils with sanitary towels Children need considerable emotional support as they feel looked down upon by children from other schools Few children approach the coach on their own accord to discuss their personal problems. Teachers would notify him if the team he coaches display problems in the classroom situation Discussion of problems dependent on relationship with children and their level of maturity. Previous netball team she coached discussed problems with her but not current one who she has only coached for nine month More serious problems at home such as abuse. The coach gives direction, coach 2

High School C (Mr. K)

High School E (Girls)

High School E (Boys)

172 is supportive and helps child to work through issues. In the case of domestic problems this is reported to the management of the school for follow up. Children discuss problems with him spontaneouslyhe has an open door policy regarding their contacting him. He knows what is going on in their lives. He asks them how things are at home, the marks at school and about their girlfriends. This is done on a Monday when they analyze the game.

High School C

High School Children come D to him spontaneously to discuss problems when he plays soccer with them informally on school premises. Relationships with girlfriends/ boyfriends They come to him for advice and often this is with regard to girlfriends Relationship with girls Speak to coach about girlfriend High School C (Mr. Le) Relationships with girlfriend High School D

High School E (Boys) High School

173 problems Boyfriendsspeaks to girls about relationship with older young men He describes himself as having a close relationship with them, they respect him and are not cheeky to him( praat nie terug nie)They play for his approval-‘ play for the coach’ and ‘sal baie doen vir the coach’. He sees their relationship with them as characteristic of the Afrikaans culture in that they do not argue with their elders and accept the decision of the teacher . He describes the relationship as characterized by mutual trust He also shares how he is feeling with the children. He describes himself as their friend father and role model e.g. always neatly dressed ( can one fulfill such diverse roles) He describes himself as a father figure for his players He F High School D

Nature of relationship with coach

High School C ( Mr K)

Ideal: Someone they have confidence in, can respect, is an example, have know for long time, would take problem seriously, keeps problem confidential, experience with type of problem, always available. Would discuss with present coach

High School C

High School C ( Mr. Le)

High School C ( Mr. B)

174 cares for the children and loves them unless they lie or are sly- he does not feel positive towards such children. Balanced child is one having good manners, disciplined, tidy in appearance, on time for practice, school work average to above average and coming from a home where discipline is important. Ideal coachHigh father figure, School D helps them to grow, kind, respects them Ideal coach is High previous School F principal because he knew all children by name, strict but caring, prayed for their families

‘godparent, High School brother or sister F to child’ Expectation is that the child should take accountability. Coach will loose trust if child does not respondqualification of relationship – see Mr. K and Mr. B High School C Girls can relate to her because she is young Sees herself as parent to the children. Describes biological High School E (Girls) Primary School A

175 parents as not interested in coming to watch the children play. sport . Adherence to school rules is mediated by the School’s disciplinary code( e.g. hair must be neat) and the fact that the children all come from the same cultural group( all learners are white and Afrikaans speaking)and have the same values e.g. parents support the corporal punishment which is implemented for certain transgressions although this is contradictory to Dept of educational policy.

Enforces discipline- e.g. use of drugs or alcohol results in youth being suspended from team

High School C High School E (Girls)

The philosophy High School which he E (Boys) communicates to the children is that they are all equal – the difference between them and the coach is only age and experience hence he is in a position to help them with what

176 he knows. On the other hand he can learn from them. Relationship with children is characterized by mutual respect Reaches out to High School children by D spending time with them during breaks Feedback Coach also approaches children on an individual basis if he observes that they seem to have something worrying theme.g. body language and they also present as depressed in the classroom situation High School E (Boys) Is sensitive to High knowing when School E something is (Boys) wrong and takes the initiative to speak to the child