The Rookie

The Rookie is the story of Mr. Miller, a man who dreamed of being a major league pitcher but instead accepted a more traditional life style with his family in a small town in Texas. Mr. Miller assumed a shadow of his previous dream as the high school baseball coach and in order to inspire his failing baseball team, he wagers winning the championship against his reattempt at becoming a major league pitcher. In due course, the team wins the championship game and Mr. Miller becomes a major league pitcher. (Hancock, 2002)
Within the context of this dramatized sports story three elements that have roots in sports psychology can be observed: arousal state management, practice and operant condition. Each of these elements will be discussed as presented in the film with additional empirical evidence and support below
Being able to harness the power stemming from altered emotional states such as anger and other changes of our internal psychological equilibrium can potentially generate and provide enormous amounts of raw power. In the properly trained athlete this raw energy can be refined into a competitive edge demonstrated as an increase in performance and capability. However, when arousal states are ignored emotions can unfortunately work against the athlete to a potentially catastrophic failure of emotional regulation. Conversely, when the player isn’t engaged fully their boredom and lack of interest in the sport can undermine their otherwise impressive talents due to lack of attention and focusing on non-essential elements.
Taylor, Gould and Rolo (2008) researched the differences between Olympic medalists and non-medalists comparing the two athletic groups’ employment of psychological skills and techniques. They determined that a consistent distinction between the two groups was that those athletes who utilized arousal state management strategies experienced a significant advantage over non-arousal state managing athletes and resulted in standing atop of the Olympic podium. Further, Taylor et. al., (2008) suggests that arousal state management (positive self talk, positive imagery, emotional regulation, etc.) are the strongest predictors in Olympian athletic victorious performance. Considering that Olympians are arguably the best athletes in their field of sport, the differences within top tier performers winning or losing appears to be the management of the raw energy that is possible when successfully regulating emotions and remaining positive.
In the film, The Owls, the high school baseball team that Mr. Miller coached were overwhelmingly defeated by a visiting team due to what Mr. Miller described as giving up. Through the course of the displayed game The Owls players appeared bored, picking at their ball mitts or staring off into the distance, lacking focus on the important elements of the game such as the other players and the ball in play. Each of these elements are common descriptors of low arousal states which negatively affected their performance and ultimately lead to the crushing defeat. (Hancock, 2002)
Alternatively, after the defeat the team is inspired by Mr. Miller’s promise to try out for major league; their emotional investment increases demonstrating enthusiasm, increased energy and motivation for victory which are associated with increased arousal states. In the subsequent montage, The Owls demonstrate their increased potential resulting in one victory after the next until the triumphant win in the championship game over the reigning championship team that originally provided their crushing loss earlier in the film. This change in attitude and utilization of emotional energy through arousal state management is reflective of the performance gains an athlete who can regulate their emotions can develop and deliver during their athletic performance. (Hancock, 2002)
Another relevant study concerning arousal state regulation, investigated by Movahedi, Sheikh, Bagerzadeh, Hemayattalab and Ashaveri (2007) compares the performance of an aroused athlete during practice and the bona fide execution of their athletic sport. According to their results, practice would seem only as useful as the condition in which it is applied; to have low arousal states in practice and high arousal during the real game negatively impact an athlete’s performance.
Movahedi et. al. (2007) reported significant declines in performance when arousal states were incongruent with athletic skills in application when compared to the arousal state in which an athlete learns them. In other words, by practicing in a low arousal state and being required to perform at a higher arousal state an athlete can expect negatively affects performance. As such practice and performance should be as closely correlated as possible for maximal success of performance. Practice
With the understanding that practice and performance should be similarly developed to maximize performance results the actual act of practicing a skill is critical to the overall development and perfection in each athletes’ skill repertoire.
The amount of time athletes dedicate to their sport and skill development can be considered an investment in their potential. Time spent practicing appears to be a critical indicator of future performance capacity. Athletes who practice twice the average for their respective sports remain top tier players whereas those who maintained the average or less number of hours of practice were significantly becoming lower tier athletes with time. (Taylor, Gould, & Rolo, 2008)
In the film, The Owls baseball field is being seeded for grass which prevents their normal practice sessions. In order to continue practice Mr. Miller and The Owls continue their regular practices in a quarry field to improve their skills and maintain their performance ability. This potentially small aspect of the film has a deeper purpose in demonstrating the relationship between practice and success. If the practices were canceled then the team may have not been able to win the championships even if the motivation and arousal states were being managed perfectly. The will to win is good but an athlete needs to have the physical skill to follow through with the psychological preparation. (Hancock, 2002)
Additionally, the very concept of practice is the origin of being skillful at a sport, Ford, Ward, Hodges, & Williams, (2009) suggest that play and practice is important in the development of sport capacity in regards to “anticipation and decision-making, as well as creative tactical responses”. Essentially, practice offers the potential to increase motivation and time investments which can result a cyclical pattern of more hours practiced and result in the development of a potential of top tier athlete.
As another example from the film, Mr. Miller is shown throughout his lifespan from a boy to adult always practicing his pitching throws even after he gave up on his dream as a major league pitcher. It is potentially this additional practice and continual skill improvement that lead to his increase in pitching speed despite his increased age which should have predicted a decrease in ability. (Hancock, 2002)
Desire and willingness to practice are then become paramount for a new athlete aspiring to become a top tier contender in their sport. However, in order to develop a positive sense of practice and the motivation to continue despite any setbacks an athlete or someone from their entourage could apply operant conditioning techniques to reinforce desired behaviors, improve skills and remove distractions or other negative factors that may impede an athlete on their ascent to the top of the game.
Operant Conditioning
Well beyond the scope and origins of rats and pigeons in Skinner Box’s, the application of operant conditioning has long been used for the field of human behavioral shaping and development. In order to develop and improve a particular behavior the most effective training strategy is the use of operant conditioning, what could be called the tit-for-tat training method. Often the most effective technique taken from operant conditioning is the use of positive reinforcement as there are no negative side effects on the athlete and has the most persistent effect over time on a behavior.
In the film, the major premise and motivating scene occurs between Mr. Miller and The Owls after the previously mentioned humiliating defeat where Mr. Miller is confronted by one of the players with the argument that there is no inspiration to win and that winning is pointless[1]. Mr. Miller uses encouraging feedback to remind the players that they can make something great of themselves and offers that if the team wins the championship then he would try out as a major league pitcher once again. In this case Mr. Miller is making his offer of trying out contingent on The Owls victory in the championship game a clear demonstration of operant conditioning, ala tit-for-tat. (Hancock, 2002)
As depicted in the example above some applications of operant conditioning that are used in the area of sports psychology are the “systematic use of verbal instructions and feedback, (2) positive and negative reinforcement, (3) positive practice, and (4) time out.” (Allison & Ayllon 1980)
Another illustration of positive feedback was a reversed setting where the players on The Owls encouraged Mr. Miller to pursue his dream by reigniting his interest in his ability to pitcher. In three separate scenes in the film a young player indicated his confidence in Mr. Miller with encouraging positive statements such as the catcher suggesting that Mr. Miller’s throws were so hard that he required ice after catching a few pitches. Such feedback provided a buffer against the negative self talk Mr. Miller was experiencing and positively reinforced the demonstration of his pitching skills. Over the course of the film Mr. Miller displays his pitching skills to his team more frequently and increases his practice sessions. After each of these scenes it becomes apparent that the interaction was a positive reinforcement due to the desired behavior being repeated with increasing frequency. (Hancock, 2002)
Although it might be considered general knowledge within the field of psychology it is generally agreed that operant condition is an effective method for behavior modification but as Allison and Ayllon (1980) reported with the correct application of behavior modification an athlete demonstrates in immediate increases of the proper execution of complex sport skills and performance measures regardless of differences in each athletes’ individual sport genre.
Typically, dramatic adaptation of film may often mislead the audience about the reality of athletes and their performance, the contribution on performance of these three elements: arousal state management, practice and operant condition associated with sports psychology are quite evident and effective both in the film and in real life application. If an athlete is ineffective at managing his/her arousal states he/she lose the opportunity to benefit from the potential energy boosts, those athletes that don’t practice will not have as refined and developed skills when competing and finally the best way in which to ensure a behavior persists is through operant conditioning. Combined these three elements as depicted in The Rookie and for all other aspiring athletes offer the opportunity to develop, grow, practiced, perfected and if lucky, immortalized as a hero in the history of sports.

Bibliography
Allison, M.G., & Ayllon, T. (1980). Behavioral coaching in the development of skills in football, gymnastics, and tennis. JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS,13(2), 297-314.
Ford, P.R., Ward, P., Hodges, N.J., & Williams, A.M. (2009). The Role of deliberate practice and play in career progression in sport: the early engagement hypothesis. High Ability Studies, 20(1), 65-75.
Movahedi, A., Sheikh, M., Bagherzadeh, F., Hemayattalab, R., & Ashayeri, H. (2007). A
Practice-specificity-based model of arousal for achieving peak performance. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39(6), 457-462.
Steuer, P. (Executive Producer), Hancock, J.L. (Director), 2002. The Rookie [Motion Picture]. United
States: Walt Disney Pictures.
Taylor, M.K., Gould, D., & Rolo, C. (2008). Performance strategies of us olympians in practice and competition. High Ability Studies, 19(1), 19-36.
Williams, J.M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Bibliography: Allison, M.G., & Ayllon, T. (1980). Behavioral coaching in the development of skills in football, gymnastics, and tennis. JOURNAL OF APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS,13(2), 297-314. Ford, P.R., Ward, P., Hodges, N.J., & Williams, A.M. (2009). The Role of deliberate practice and play in career progression in sport: the early engagement hypothesis. High Ability Studies, 20(1), 65-75. Movahedi, A., Sheikh, M., Bagherzadeh, F., Hemayattalab, R., & Ashayeri, H. (2007). A Practice-specificity-based model of arousal for achieving peak performance. Journal of Motor Behavior, 39(6), 457-462. Steuer, P. (Executive Producer), Hancock, J.L. (Director), 2002. The Rookie [Motion Picture]. United States: Walt Disney Pictures. Taylor, M.K., Gould, D., & Rolo, C. (2008). Performance strategies of us olympians in practice and competition. High Ability Studies, 19(1), 19-36. Williams, J.M. (2010). Applied sport psychology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.