Thinking Critically with Psychological Science (Chapter 1 )
THINKING CRITICALLY WITH PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
Chapter 1
SQ3R
(Survey, Questions, Read, Retrieve, Review)
QUESTIONS:
THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
1-1: How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense?
Scientific inquiry can help us sift reality, from illusion. Feelings, intuition, overconfidence, and our natural tendency to perceive the outcome usually based on how we interpret a given situation. Three phenomena- hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. By putting observant data into something that we can record will give us a better concept of reality.
1-2: How do the scientific attitude’s three main components relate to critical thinking?
CURIOUS, SKEPTICAL AND HUMBLE
The smart thinker asks “Does it work? When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?” To sift reality from fantasy, sense from non-sense, requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible. Psychologist approach the world of behavior with a curious skepticism, persistently asking two questions: “What do you mean?” and “How do you know?”
Humility along with curiosity and skepticism is required with using scientific attitude practices. An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives is needed so that the truth is seen in response to our questioning. The fact that we need to lay aside our preconceptions and be open to something else all together, gives us a more realistic result.
Critical thinking is just smart thinking. It causes us to examine assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Critical thinking helps us to filter out the stuff from our biases.
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?
1-3: How do theories advance psychological science?
A good theory produces testable predictions called Hypotheses. Hypothesis is a testable prediction often implied by a theory. It answers questions such as “What results are needed to prove this theory or disprove this theory?” In a research, psychologist can report their findings with operational definitions of the procedures and concepts they used. These definitions are carefully worded so that the research can be replicated with different groups or materials. If they get similar results by using different materials, confidence in that finding grows.
The theory is useful if organizes a range of self reports and observations and implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications..
1-4: How do psychologists us case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys to observe and describe behavior and why is random sampling important?
The starting point of any science is description. Psychologist looks at situations more objectively and systematically through different ways of observations. Case studies examine one individual in depth in order to answer questions about who we all are as a whole. To discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods.
Other than case studies, a second descriptive method is used to record behaviors in their natural environments. The naturalistic observations do not explain behavior, it only describes it.
Another descriptive method used to record behaviors or opinions is through surveys. The results are tricky because it matters how the questions are worded and how the respondents are chosen. Because wording is such a delicate matter, critical thinkers will often reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect peoples expressed opinions. Random sampling in surveys effect results as well. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample, which means every person in your group of study would have an equal chance in participating. Yet, remember when accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider where the sample came from.
1-5: What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanations?
Describing behavior is a first step in predicting it. When we have tow cases that may relate to each other we say that the two correlate. The measure of statistics or correlation coefficient helps to figure out how closely two things vary together and thus, how well either one predicts the other. Questions like “How closely related are the personality scores of identical twins?” and “How closely related is stress to sickness or disease?” To help determine the results scatterplots can be revealing.
A correlation is positive if two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together.
A correlation is negative if two sets of scores relate inversely one set going up and the other goes down.
Association does not prove causation. Correlation indicates only the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such.
1-6: What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?
To isolate cause and effect, researchers can experiment. Experiments help researches to isolate the effects of one or more factors by (1) manipulating the factors of interest and (2) holding constant (“controlling”) other factors. To do this they create experimental groups in which people receive the treatment and a contrasting group that does not receive the treatment. By randomly assigning people to each group they can minimize any preexisting differences that are between the two groups. An experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect.
STATISTICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
1-7: How can we describe data with measure of central tendency and variation?
After gathering data from research, that information must be organized. One way to do this is in the bar graph, the way you can make the difference in the data appear small or large is by being careful what information goes on the Y-axis (or vertical scale).
After organizing your data into a graph you now need to summarize it using some measure of tendency. This gives a single scare that represents a whole set of scores.
The simplest measure is the mode, the most frequently occurring score or scores.
The most commonly reported measure is the mean, or the total sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores.
The median is the middle point the 50% area.
To neatly summarize data we use measures of central tendency.
When scores of data summarized show how similar or diverse it is, it shows the amount of variation.
The range of scores shows the gap between the lowest and highest scores, this shows only a crude estimate of variation.
Standard deviation better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed, it uses info from each score.
Standard deviation when graphed often for a symmetrical, bell shaped distribution. Most cases will fall near the mean and fewer on each extreme. We call this bell shape the normal curve.
1-8: How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?
For guidance we can ask how reliable and significant the differences are in the data.
Three things to keep in mind:
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. – Pay attention to what population a study has sampled.
2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. – An average is more reliable when it comes from the scores with low variability.
3. More cases are better than few.- More accurate results are found when more cases have given data.
Statistical testing can eliminate the probability of the result occurring by chance. When two averages from two samples are each reliable measure of their populations, then their difference is likely to be reliable as well.
When the difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations. We call this statistical significance.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY 1-9: Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? The experimenters intend the laboratory environment to be a simplified reality, one that simulates and controls important features of everyday life. It doesn’t re-create behaviors of everyday life but it test theoretical principles. It is the resulting principles-not the specific findings-that help explain everyday behaviors.
1-10: Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Our culture shapes our behavior because culture is shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next. Gender matters also, and helps to shape our behavior. Knowing the difference that gender creates, can help prevent conflicts and misunderstanding in everyday relationships. Yet, biologically women and men are the same quite similar, when comparing information such as age of walking, or if we feel hunger pains, desire, and fear.
1-11: Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants?
Psychologist study animals to understand how different species learn, think, and behave. Psychologist also can learn about people by studying animals. Psychology concerned for humans and sensitive to animals serves the welfare of both. Heated debates brought up questions such as, ” Is it right to place the well-being of humans over the well-being of animals?” and “Is our use of animals and consumption of animals natural as a carnivorous humans that we are?”
Many surveys of animal researchers have proven that they too believe in safeguarding the animals and also support regulations providing for the humane care of research animals. Even research companies have placed their own guidelines in place. Many universities also have ethics committees that screen research proposals and safeguards participants’ well-being.
1-12: Is psychology free of value judgments?
Psychology is not value free. Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results. Each researchers’ values will influence their choice of topics. Values can also cloud “the facts“, by our preconceptions, we bias our observations and interpretations on what we want, or expect to see happen.
A science of behavior and mental processes can help us reach our goals, but it cannot decide what those goals should be.
Chapter 1
SQ3R
(Survey, Questions, Read, Retrieve, Review)
QUESTIONS:
THE NEED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE
1-1: How do hindsight bias, overconfidence, and the tendency to perceive order in random events illustrate why science-based answers are more valid than those based on intuition and common sense?
Scientific inquiry can help us sift reality, from illusion. Feelings, intuition, overconfidence, and our natural tendency to perceive the outcome usually based on how we interpret a given situation. Three phenomena- hindsight bias, judgmental overconfidence, and our tendency to perceive patterns in random events illustrate why we cannot rely solely on intuition and common sense. By putting observant data into something that we can record will give us a better concept of reality.
1-2: How do the scientific attitude’s three main components relate to critical thinking?
CURIOUS, SKEPTICAL AND HUMBLE
The smart thinker asks “Does it work? When put to the test, can its predictions be confirmed?” To sift reality from fantasy, sense from non-sense, requires a scientific attitude: being skeptical but not cynical, open but not gullible. Psychologist approach the world of behavior with a curious skepticism, persistently asking two questions: “What do you mean?” and “How do you know?”
Humility along with curiosity and skepticism is required with using scientific attitude practices. An awareness of our own vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new perspectives is needed so that the truth is seen in response to our questioning. The fact that we need to lay aside our preconceptions and be open to something else all together, gives us a more realistic result.
Critical thinking is just smart thinking. It causes us to examine assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. Critical thinking helps us to filter out the stuff from our biases.
HOW DO PSYCHOLOGISTS ASK AND ANSWER QUESTIONS?
1-3: How do theories advance psychological science?
A good theory produces testable predictions called Hypotheses. Hypothesis is a testable prediction often implied by a theory. It answers questions such as “What results are needed to prove this theory or disprove this theory?” In a research, psychologist can report their findings with operational definitions of the procedures and concepts they used. These definitions are carefully worded so that the research can be replicated with different groups or materials. If they get similar results by using different materials, confidence in that finding grows.
The theory is useful if organizes a range of self reports and observations and implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications..
1-4: How do psychologists us case studies, naturalistic observation and surveys to observe and describe behavior and why is random sampling important?
The starting point of any science is description. Psychologist looks at situations more objectively and systematically through different ways of observations. Case studies examine one individual in depth in order to answer questions about who we all are as a whole. To discern the general truths that cover individual cases, we must answer questions with other research methods.
Other than case studies, a second descriptive method is used to record behaviors in their natural environments. The naturalistic observations do not explain behavior, it only describes it.
Another descriptive method used to record behaviors or opinions is through surveys. The results are tricky because it matters how the questions are worded and how the respondents are chosen. Because wording is such a delicate matter, critical thinkers will often reflect on how the phrasing of a question might affect peoples expressed opinions. Random sampling in surveys effect results as well. The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample, which means every person in your group of study would have an equal chance in participating. Yet, remember when accepting survey findings, think critically. Consider where the sample came from.
1-5: What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanations?
Describing behavior is a first step in predicting it. When we have tow cases that may relate to each other we say that the two correlate. The measure of statistics or correlation coefficient helps to figure out how closely two things vary together and thus, how well either one predicts the other. Questions like “How closely related are the personality scores of identical twins?” and “How closely related is stress to sickness or disease?” To help determine the results scatterplots can be revealing.
A correlation is positive if two sets of scores tend to rise or fall together.
A correlation is negative if two sets of scores relate inversely one set going up and the other goes down.
Association does not prove causation. Correlation indicates only the possibility of a cause-effect relationship but does not prove such.
1-6: What are the characteristics of experimentation that make it possible to isolate cause and effect?
To isolate cause and effect, researchers can experiment. Experiments help researches to isolate the effects of one or more factors by (1) manipulating the factors of interest and (2) holding constant (“controlling”) other factors. To do this they create experimental groups in which people receive the treatment and a contrasting group that does not receive the treatment. By randomly assigning people to each group they can minimize any preexisting differences that are between the two groups. An experiment manipulates a factor to determine its effect.
STATISTICAL REASONING IN EVERYDAY LIFE
1-7: How can we describe data with measure of central tendency and variation?
After gathering data from research, that information must be organized. One way to do this is in the bar graph, the way you can make the difference in the data appear small or large is by being careful what information goes on the Y-axis (or vertical scale).
After organizing your data into a graph you now need to summarize it using some measure of tendency. This gives a single scare that represents a whole set of scores.
The simplest measure is the mode, the most frequently occurring score or scores.
The most commonly reported measure is the mean, or the total sum of all the scores divided by the number of scores.
The median is the middle point the 50% area.
To neatly summarize data we use measures of central tendency.
When scores of data summarized show how similar or diverse it is, it shows the amount of variation.
The range of scores shows the gap between the lowest and highest scores, this shows only a crude estimate of variation.
Standard deviation better gauges whether scores are packed together or dispersed, it uses info from each score.
Standard deviation when graphed often for a symmetrical, bell shaped distribution. Most cases will fall near the mean and fewer on each extreme. We call this bell shape the normal curve.
1-8: How do we know whether an observed difference can be generalized to other populations?
For guidance we can ask how reliable and significant the differences are in the data.
Three things to keep in mind:
1. Representative samples are better than biased samples. – Pay attention to what population a study has sampled.
2. Less-variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. – An average is more reliable when it comes from the scores with low variability.
3. More cases are better than few.- More accurate results are found when more cases have given data.
Statistical testing can eliminate the probability of the result occurring by chance. When two averages from two samples are each reliable measure of their populations, then their difference is likely to be reliable as well.
When the difference between the sample averages is large, we have even more confidence that the difference between them reflects a real difference in their populations. We call this statistical significance.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY 1-9: Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life? The experimenters intend the laboratory environment to be a simplified reality, one that simulates and controls important features of everyday life. It doesn’t re-create behaviors of everyday life but it test theoretical principles. It is the resulting principles-not the specific findings-that help explain everyday behaviors.
1-10: Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
Our culture shapes our behavior because culture is shared ideas and behaviors that one generation passes on to the next. Gender matters also, and helps to shape our behavior. Knowing the difference that gender creates, can help prevent conflicts and misunderstanding in everyday relationships. Yet, biologically women and men are the same quite similar, when comparing information such as age of walking, or if we feel hunger pains, desire, and fear.
1-11: Why do psychologists study animals, and what ethical guidelines safeguard human and animal research participants?
Psychologist study animals to understand how different species learn, think, and behave. Psychologist also can learn about people by studying animals. Psychology concerned for humans and sensitive to animals serves the welfare of both. Heated debates brought up questions such as, ” Is it right to place the well-being of humans over the well-being of animals?” and “Is our use of animals and consumption of animals natural as a carnivorous humans that we are?”
Many surveys of animal researchers have proven that they too believe in safeguarding the animals and also support regulations providing for the humane care of research animals. Even research companies have placed their own guidelines in place. Many universities also have ethics committees that screen research proposals and safeguards participants’ well-being.
1-12: Is psychology free of value judgments?
Psychology is not value free. Values affect what we study, how we study it, and how we interpret results. Each researchers’ values will influence their choice of topics. Values can also cloud “the facts“, by our preconceptions, we bias our observations and interpretations on what we want, or expect to see happen.
A science of behavior and mental processes can help us reach our goals, but it cannot decide what those goals should be.