Types of Fallacy

Types of Fallacy

1) Fallacy of Accident/ Fallacy of Sweeping Generalization
- occurs when one reason with the generalization as if it has no exceptions.
Examples:
1) Cutting people with a knife is a crime Surgeons cut people with knives Therefore, surgeons are criminals.
2) Birds can fly Penguins are birds Therefore, penguins can fly
3) Speeding up above 50 kph is a crime. Therefore, ambulance drivers are criminals.

2) Fallacy of Converse Accident
- occurs when you reason by paying too much attention to exception to the rule, and generalize on the exceptions.
- opposite of the fallacy of accident
Examples:
1) I’ve heard that turtles live longer than tarantulas, but the one turtle I bought lived only two days. I bought it at Dowden’s Pet Store. So, I think that turtles bought from pet stores do not live longer than tarantulas.
2) Beacause we allow terminally ill patients to use heroin, we should allow everyone to use heroin.
3) Since you allowed Ara, who was hit by a jeep, to hand her assignment late, you must also allow everyone to hand their assignment late.

3) Argumentum ad Hominem
- occurs when you make an irrelevant argument directed to the person by pointing out character flaws.
Examples:
1) What she says about Johannes Kepler’s astronomy of the 1600′s must be just so much garbage. Do you realize she’s only fourteen years old?
2) How can she have known what happened? She can’t even do simple Math.
3) You have already been suspended. Therefore, we can’t accept your suggestions.

4) Argumentum ad Baculum
- occurs when you make an argument that appeals to the use of force like threat, intimidation or strong arm tactics.
Examples:
1) My father owns the department store that gives your newspaper fifteen percent of all its advertising revenue, so I’m sure you won’t want to publish any story of my arrest for spray painting the college.
2) If you don’t take that course, I will disinherit you.
3) You had better agree that the new company policy is the best bet if you want to keep your job.

5) Argumentum ad Misericordiam
- occurs when you make an argument that appeals to pity or a related emotion such as sympathy or compassion.
Examples:
1) I did not steal your money. I haven’t eaten in a long while. My children and I are really hungry.
2) Officer, please don’t give me a ticket. I was just really in a hurry because I really need to go the hospital. My friend is dying. I don’t have any minute to spare.
3) Mom. I’m sorry. I can’t wash the dishes. My hands really hurt. They were injured a while ago.

6) Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
- occurs when you make an argument from ignorance. It asserts that a proposition is true because it has not been proven false or vice versa.
Examples:
1) No one has objected Johan’s policies during the seminar. I assume that they are all true.
2) Since the class has no more questions, the class is then ready for a test.
3) Nobody has ever proved to me that there are no extraterrestrial being. Therefore, there is no extraterrestrial being.

7) Argumentum ad Populum
- occurs when you claim that your argument is correct simply because it is what most everyone believes in or when you appeal to popularity or traditional institution.
Examples:
1) Selena Gomez must be pregnant. Everyone believes so.
2) You must not cut your nails at night. All elders have agreed so.
3) We must watch channel K. It is the most watched channel this year.

8) Argumentum ad Vericundiam
- occurs when you make an appeal to the authority, specifically the wrong authority. This occurs when you mention an argument that is outside of the authorities’ expertise.
Examples:
1) Noted psychologist, Dr. Rodriguez, suggests you buy the Samsung Galaxy Tab rather than the iPad.
2) Her fitness instructor recommended her to try watching Inception.
3) The architect recommended using less baking powder when making cakes.

9) Strawman Fallacy
- occurs when you make an argument that ignores a person’s actual position and substitutes a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented (strawman) version of that position.
Examples:
1) Trinatarianism holds that three equals one. 3 apples is not equal to 1 apple Therefore, Trinatarianism is false
2) We should have conscription. People don’t want to enter the military because they find it an inconvenience. But they should realize that there are more important things than their convenience.
3) People who think abortion should be banned have no respect for the rights of women. They treat them as nothing but baby-making machines. That's wrong. Women must have the right to choose.

10) Red Herring Fallacy
- occurs when you make an argument with an irrelevant topic in order to divert attention from the original issue
Examples:
1) I think that she should not be suspended. I think that we must support her. After all, we have to watch a movie later.
2) Mom: You must sleep early. Child: Mom! I had a great day. We played seesaw and slide. I was given an award. (Tries hard not to be forced to sleep)
3) Friend: Have you finished your homework? Me: Do you wanna watch The Vampire Diaries?

11) False Analogy
- occurs when you make a statement of an analogy that are too dissimilar. These are misleading, superficial and implausible comparisons.
Examples:
1) Students are like nails. Just like nails must be hit in the head to make them work, so must be students.
2) This book is like a dream. It makes your sleep seem longer.
3) The ballpen is like a stick. The ballpen can be used to write on paper. Therefore, a stick can also be used to write on paper.

12) Slippery Slope Fallacy - occurs when you argue that some event must inevitably follow from another without an argument for the inevitability of the event in question. Examples:
1) If you buy a Suju album, then next you’ll buy a TVXQ album and before you know it you’ll be speaking Korean.
2) We have to stop the tuition fee increase. The next thing you know we will be paying a hundred thousand per sem.
3) You should never try taking on drugs. Once you’d be addicted you’ll have to buy more. In order to buy more you’ll start turning to crime to have more money.

13) Fallacy of Complex Question
- occurs when you frame a question so that some presupposition is made by the wording of the question
Examples:
1) Are you going to continue on wasting my time?
2) Where did you hide the food you stole?
3) Did you commit the crime before or after 3 am?

14) Petitio Principii/ Begging the Question
- a form of circular reasoning. An argument in which a conclusion is derived from premises that presuppose the conclusion.
Examples:
1) If you actions are not dishonest, then you won’t be sanctioned to suspension.
2) You should drive on the right side of the road because that is what the law says, and the law is law.
3) I think that he is attractive because he is athletic.
15) Fallacy of False Dilemma
- occurs when you unfairly present too few choices and imply that a choice must be made among these choices.
Examples:
1) If the doctor’s can’t explain how Tom was cured then it is a miracle. The doctor can’t explain how Tom is cured Therefore, it is a miracle.
2) You must be either pro-Noynoy or pro-Manny..
3) You are either a Coke-fanatic or a Pepsi-loyalist.

16) Equivocation
- occurs when you use the same word with two different meanings.
Examples:
1) Juan is a nobody Nobody is perfect Therefore, Juan is perfect.
2) A feather is light What is light cannot be dark Therefore, the feather cannot be dark
3) Everything that runs has feet. The river runs, Therefore, the river has a feet.

17) Amphiboly
- occurs as a result of ambiguity of grammatical structure.
Examples:
1) Running for the jeep, my notebooks fell in the mud.
2) Deciding to join the organization, the recruiter enthusiastically pats May’s shoulder.
3) Relieved from the class’ stress, the dormitory is a good place to relax.

18) Composition
- “From each to all”
- occurs when a conclusion is drawn about a whole based on the features of its constituents when, in fact, no justification provided for the interference.
Examples:
1) Every song on the album last for less than an hour Therefore, the album lasts for less than an hour.
2) 5 and 3 are odd numbers Therefore, 8 must be an odd number.
3) A human cell is very light Therefore, a human must also be very light

19) Division
- occurs when a person infers that what is true of a whole must also be true of its constituents and justification for that interference is not provided.
Examples:
1) The rainbow is colorful Therefore, all its divisions are colorful.
2) The 1st floor girls are noisy Therefore, Anna, who is lives on the first floor, is noisy. 3) Water is liquid Therefore, all H¬2¬O molecules are liquid.
20) Accent - occurs when emphasis is used to suggest a meaning different from the actual content of the proposition.
Examples:
1) I am opposed to taxes “which” slow economic growth. (Are you saying that All taxes slow economic growth? Or you just oppose some taxes who slow economic growth?)
2) I will waste “no time” in reading your novel (Are you saying that the novel is too good that reading it won’t waste your time? Or are you saying that you wont waste your time by reading the novel.) 3) No Parking- Towing (This might mean that there is no parking and towing in this area or there is no parking or else your car will be towed.)

Sources: http://onegoodmove.org/ http://www.iep.utm.edu/
Acuna, Andresito. Philosophical Analysis. 7th Edition.