Western Civilization Outline
Europe
I. General Info
A. Facts 1. birthplace of western civilization 2. influential on world development a. history - exploration b. philosophy - religion
[ religious backgrounds in US & Latin America come from Rome ] c. ideology - gov
[ democracy comes from Ancient Greece ] 3. continent - subregions a. Eastern (Central) b. Western
B. Geography 1. major cities~refer to map 2. 2nd smallest Australia, 2.9) -4 sq. miles 3. population of 700 million +, density 65 ppl/sq. mile 4. 40+ nations a. largest - Russia ~ 6.6m sq. m b. smallest - Vatican City ~ 109 acres 5. highest point - Mt. Elbrus ~ 18,481 ft 6. lowest point - Caspian Depression ~ 92 ft 7. physical features - located on map a. Mt. ranges b. rivers …show more content…
c. major islands
C. Land Regions 1. Northwest Mountains a. some of the oldest rock formations on earth 2. The Great European Planins a. very fertile land 3. Central Uplands [ Part of Germany + Poland ] a. rich mineral resources 4. The Alpine Mountain System a. heavy forest cover the upper slopes
[ global warming has caused snow to melt ]
2. Cultural
A. Urban/Rural 1. Urbanization ~ "Americanization" a. modern sky scrapers b. fast food chains, supermarkets c. malls d. old vs. new city 1) farmer's market 2) fortress/castles & cathedrals 3) walled city 4) new ethnics
[ Muslims from Africa have caused some trouble in EU. ] 2. country ~ "traditional way of life" 3. religious divisions a. Northern ~ Protestant b. Southern ~ Roman Catholic c. Eastern ~ Orthodox
B. Social classes 1. have vs. have nots 2. not until the late 19th century, women & peasants voted 3. Class structure a. worker b. peasant ~ "poor farmer" c. landowners d. industrialists 4. Middle class emerged through professional jobs 5. Class by rank & privilege = obedience & respect a. royalty b. nobility c. church officials 1) clergy 2) Hierarchy d. everyone else 6. Social mobility a. marriage b. education c. achievement d. financial success 7. Family a. most important in society 1) responsible for the individual
[ seen more prominent in Germany, Italy, Poland - particularly southern EU ]
3. Government & Education
A. Government's role 1. major part in running economies & providing for the basic welfare of the ppl 2. much greater role in national affairs 3. gov. owns & operates infrastructure a. airlines b. railroads c. communication 4. major social welfare programs a Otto von Bismark - created 1st social security program in the mid-18th century b. many social entitlements
[ social security was adopted by US during Great Depression ] 1) free medical care 2) Norway a) paid month vacation b) free college education 3) Sweden a) allowance children political & economic unity b. ECU > European Currency Unit
[ PIIGS countries (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece, & Spain - weaker economy) weaken euro currencies BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries MIST (Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, Turkey) - newly rising economic powers ] c. The Treaty: 1) policies - social issues & infrastructure 2) money - common currency 3) politics - single foreign policy 4) defense - common policy 5) European Parliament 6) Immigration - freer movement 7) citizenship - "citizen of the union"
B. Education 1. vastly literate - +90% 2. oldest & most respected universities 3. some of the world's leading libraries
[ Oxford library has every single book published by an English author ]
II. History of Europe
1. Early
A. Prehistoric 1. early human - over 1 million yrs ago *2. 6000 BC farming developed [ major step for civilization ] a. final steps to civilization b. settlement avoided the search for food 3. entire continent involved in farming, except the northern densely forested region
B.
Early Civilization 1. developed on the islands in the Aegean Sea 3000-1000 BCE (BC) 2. post 100 BC - tribes united & formed units called "polis" - Greek word for city- states, evolved into political ~ Early democracy 3. height of civilization 400-300 BC a. Athens ~ educated = butter [ most money was put into ed. & arts ] b. Sparta ~ military = guns [ money was put into military ] c. Peloponnesian Wars 1) Sparta defeated Athens 404 BC a) humiliating peace treaty, cruel rule 2) 371 BC Sparta lost any claim to supreme Greece d. a northern kingdom, Macedonia seized control of Greece in 338 BC 1) Alexander the Great began in 336 BC to build an empire, died in 323 BC [ ATG - Macedonia king; created a great empire ] a) city-states gained independence 4. demos-people, kratia-power or rule [ democracy ]
1) Alexander the Great b. Historians' Verdict 1. Visionary - constructing a fusion of East & West 2. Cruel and Unstable - megalomaniac, an ancient Stalin/Hitler - did not care about unifying mankind, but power & grabbing territory 3. Brought Western Ideas of Civilization to the East - methods seemingly brutal by today's standards but acceptable at the
time 4. historians divided - from blind wrath to acts of selfless generosity
D. Roman Empire 1. 27BCE-CE 180 greatest power (anno domini) a. Pax Romana - Roman Peace [ 200 yrs of Roman peace ] 1) there was no country strong enough to threaten Rome, peace ensured b. Plebeians-common people vs. Patricians-aristrocrats 1) Plebeians could vote, not hold office 2) 451 BCE 1st time laws written - "12 Tables" a) basic Roman legal code for 1000 yrs b) rights & duties of the individual citizens
[ children born w/in marriage, fathers could decide whether they could kill them or not ] 2. Christianity began in Palestine a. early Christians at first persecuted b. early 300 CE Emperor Constantine allowed religious freedom 3. Constantine dies 337 the empire began to break up a. 395 east Byzantine - Constantinople b. west Rome - Roman Catholic Church c. empire too large for one man to rule 4. contributions from Greece & Rome helped people understand their importance in society
E. Germanic Invasions ~ "The Great Migration" 1. from the north barbarians attacked a. the Huns drove them further west b. Germanic tribes moved throughout EU c. Slavic tribes in Eastern EU
2. Middle Ages (Medieval Period) [ FNS Failing Nation States ] fall of the Roman Empire small kingdoms & powerful states ruled Roman Catholic Church (RCC) very powerful force Towns developed
A. Development 1. the Franks [ tribe in Germany ] the most powerful kingdom 2. greatest power, Charlemagne (768-814) a. crowned emperor by the Pope, 800 [ crowned on Xmas - divine right ] b. empire began to break up w/ his death 3. Manorialism - chief economic system a. landlord estate b. big manor house [ ppl divided into occupations such as nuns and warriors ] 4. Otto I - Germany crowned by Pope, 962 a. "The Great" b. won Slavic lands extending the frontiers of the German kingdom c. 951 married the queen of Italy [ leads to Italy & Germany pact of WWII ] d. deposed Pope John XII & replaced him w/ Pope Leo VIII, 962 e. grandson Otto II saw himself as world leader of Christianity, goal~universal Christian state 5. LE - life expectancy 30 yrs a. disease, famine, war, & low birth rate 6. fall of the Frankish Empire ~ military & political system of feudalism developed a. period of peace & security ~ Lords ruled 1000CE 7. towns began to grow, trade increased a. peasants left the farms b. middle class developed & supported the kings vs. the feudal lords 1) paid kings taxes for protection & freedom develop businesses 2) kings paid armies that could force the feudal lords to accept their authority 8. MAGNA CARTA (L.) "Great Charter" a. King John of England trial by jury, 1215 b. Barons forced King John to approve giving many rights to the English aristocracy c. placed the king under the law & checked his royal power ~ "checks & balances" d. "due process of law" ~ base of democracy 9. early 1300's troubles disrupted life in Western EU a. wars, disease, & economic problems b. breakdown of feudalism, law & order & civil wars c. The Hundred Years War 1337-1453 [ wars were periodic not continuous ] 1) English & French kings fought for control of France a) territorial rights & succession to France throne b) conclusion England status as a power on the continent c) destroyed trade & exhausted both economies d) destroyed French nobility, created a new social order 2) Black Death, Bubonic Plague, 1347-50 killed 1/4 of the population - ("houses were emptied, cities abandoned, countrysides untilled, fields heaped w/ corpses & a vast, dreadful solitude over the world . . . " Petrarch - rats made a human revolution!)
[ The English Bill of Rights were shown in class. ] 3) severe famines & droughts *** fall of the Roman Empire 476 ~ "Veni Vidi Vici" [ "I came, saw and conquered" ], Holy Roman Empire - 962 by Charlemagne lasted until 1806 10. Muslim Influence a. Spanish Moors [ dark-skinned Spanish ] threatened all of EU until the French defeat the Spanish Moors @ the "Battle of Tours" in 732*** 1) powerful in Spain until 1200's b. Muslim Turks conquered much of EU 1) Ottoman Empire - mid 1500-1800's 11. Crusades 1096-1270 - 9 major wars ~ Middle East a. West EU military forces try to 'liberate' the Holy Land from Muslim rule
[ several losses for one; did very poorly ] b. Abandoned conquer of Holy Land in 1500's, shifted attention to Americas 12. Cultural, Economy, & Political change less concerned w/ religious teaching, more Humanism to understand man & his world [ children as old as 8 were sent to battle ]
B. Renaissance - "rebirth" ****know date of this event**** 1. 300 yrs of great advancement in arts & literature in EU → "earthquake" 2. began in Italy early 1300's 3. spread through most of EU 1400 & 1500's 4. major growth of democracy renewed interest in education & scientific research 5. Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type - revolutionized spread of info - German printer 6. Philosophers a. John Locke c. JJ Roussaeu e. Montesquieu b. T. Hobbes d. N. Machiabelli
C. Inquisition 1. origin Constantine 306-337, Roman Catholic Church seek out & punished heretics 2. 1231 Pope Gregory IX created special court to investigate & have heretics change beliefs (France, Germany, Italy, & Spain) a. torture & sentence to die by burning 3. Spanish most complete 1500's 4. today condemned by RCC for violating modern standards of justice
[ "backsliding" Christian converts to Jewish or Muslim faith for economic gain ]
D. Reformation 1. religious movement 1500's change RCC a. lead to birth to Protestantism 1) other Christian churches (RCC & OC) 2. Martin Lurther, 1571 Reform Movement a. Church neglected its spiritual responsibility b. Lost confidence in church leaders 3. Many Protestant churches established over 40 yrs 4. counter reformation in the RCC a. renewal movement 1500-1600's 1) revival, purify "in head & membership" b. two main fronts 1) rebirth of faith among the ppls 2) reassessment of principles by leaders
[ Enlightment 6 key ideas: reason, nature/natural laws, happiness, progress, liberty, toleration ] c. Council of Trent 1545-1563 1) "Seven sacraments" 2) church authority ~ infallibility of the Pope 3) est. schools, sent missionaries d. New World, new frontiers 5. North~Protestant, South~Catholics a. division contributed 6. "Thirty Year War" a. religious war in Germany
[ last religious war; The Balkans of the 1990s ] b. last major European war of religion c. first all-European struggle for power d. larger part to alter the balance of power e. 5/23/1618 a number of Protestant Bohemian noblemen threw two royal governors out the windows in Prague - "Defenestration of Prague" [ getting rid of the Catholics ] 1) rebellion against the Catholic king's policies, privileges & power f. many different locations & time periods 1) ended w/ most European nations involved g. Peace of Westphalia, 1648 settled territory 1) destroyed HRE 2) Sweden dominate power in N. EU 3) France replaced Spain dominate power in W. EU h. Conclusion 1) many areas destroyed 2) decline in culture 3) 10,000's left EU for the Americas
E. Rise of Great Powers
**Cavaliers (1atin "mounted horsemen") horsemen, later mounted knights nickname to the supporters of King Charles I opposed to the ruling body of Parliamentarians in 17th England** 1. Feudal lords declined, kings grew stronger a. RCC lost much influence, nations united
F. Exploration "The Great Age of Discovery" 1400s 1. colonies in Africa, Asia, & the Americas a. imperialism b. seeds of the 20th/21st C. problems 2. growing trade = more wealth & power 3. early 1700s great powers dominate EU
G. Age of Reason 1600-1700 1. use of reason to determine the truth a. led to modern scientific method 2. condemned superstition & questions traditional beliefs 3. feelings & individuality not reason & order
3. New Age
A. Democracy & Nationalism 1. challenge of traditional authority 2. nationalism unified the nation in fight for democratic gov. 3. military, economic & political terms played a role in the development of EU *a. lebensraum - territory considered for national existence ~ Hitler 1) Charlemagne's policy Drang Nach Osten push to the east 2) German nobles took properties/Slavic serfs for labor (slaves) *b. revanchism - policy pursued by a gov. to recover lost territories *c. irredentism - policy of a nation to incorporate historically/ethically related to it w/in its own boundaries
B. French Revolution 1. lower & growing middle class revolted ~ Louis XVI seized control of the gov. a. Declaration of Rights of Man & the Citizen 1) principle of human liberty & rights ~ individual
[ "Liberté (freedom), Egalité (equality), Fraternité (brotherhood)" ] 2. three points of the revolution Reform (1789-1791) Radical yrs (1791-1794) - terror, violence Counter-Reformation (1795-1799) 3. Napoleon Bonaparte rose through the ranks of military & seized gov. in 1799 a. French Revolution ended 4. Other European monarchies feared the spread of Democratic ideas 5. Napoleon began to attack France's neighbors a. previously ~ lost most of army invading Russia b. European ally powers defeated Napoleon in 1815 @ Battle of Waterloo (South of Brussels) 6. Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 a. To reorganize EU post-Napoleonic Wars b. Leaders of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, & Russia agreed to return EU back to pre- France systems c. Tried to crush Democratic & nationalistic ideas, however unsuccessful d. Monarchies restored in France & Spain 7. by 1900s nearly all EU nations had a constitution & at least some democratic institutions Battle of Trafalgar 10/21/1805
Naval Battle ~ off the southern coast of Spain.
Entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar
The Continental System - Napoleon's policy of trading w/ only members on the continent
Napoleonic wars between the Franco-Spanish fleets vs. English ships
Lord Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) "England expects every man will do his duty." *** Shot as the British were in sight of victory, a major hero in England
England didn't lose a ship, destroyed/captured 1/2 of the Spanish and French ships.
Napoleon gave up on invading England, turned his sights on Russia
Outcome England gained supremacy of the seas for 100 yrs.
[ England was not challenged until WWI. ] Pax Britannia Pax Romana Pax Americana
C. The Industrial Revolution 1. Began in Great Britain during 1700's a. m. 1800's widespread in W. EU 2. factories appeared, towns grew into industrial cities, many social changes w/ the emergence of the middle class a. poor pay & living conditions b. Marx's philosophy geared > oppressed > workers rise up against the wealthy 3. by the late 19th century most industrial nations made progress a. laws regulating working conditions b. raised the standard of living *SOL 4. Irish Potato Famine 1845-1849 a. Irish revolt vs. the English, 1641 1) Oliver Cromwell [ is Hitler to the Jews ], England crushed the revolt, 1649 b. England intolerant of the Irish uprising 1) ethnic & racial intolerance a) violence & vandalism c. in the 19th century Irish population grew rapidly 1) many absent English landowners - landlords d. famine for 50+ yrs in the making 1)disastrous British economic policy 2) destructive farming methods 3) "the Blight" potato fungus almost instantly destroyed the primary source of food ~ majority 4) results a) 1/2 million to 1 million dead b) 2 million refugees - "Irish Diaspora" US, Canada, Australia e. Irish fight for home rule 1) Easter Monday, 1916 the "republicans" wanting a complete independent rebellion began a rebellion, were defeated by British troops a) executed 15 republican leaders, post-uprising
[ huge mistake & created martyrs ] 2) 1922 Irish independence a) divided Ireland - North & the Republic b) 26 [ 26 counties of Ireland ] & 6 [ 6 counties of N. Ireland (Olstra sp?) = 1 (counties) c) Sinn Fein - political branch of the IRA (Irish Republican Army)
D. Colonial Expansion late 19th century 1. Imperialism a. "The sun never sets on the British Empire" 2. raw materials taken from Africa & Asia
III. Twenty Century Europe
"Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." "It is sweet & dignified to die for the fatherland." ~ Windfred Owen (1893-1918) The old lie
1. The World Wars
A. WWI 1. June, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, assassinate by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist trained in terrorism by the Black Hand Society a. formed in 1911, terrorist methods to promote the liberation of Serbs outside of Servian from Hapsburg or Ottoman rule b. daggers/blackhands ~ demanded money on pain of death or destruction of property 2. first known as The Great War a. Allies - Triple Entente - England, France, & Russia b. Central Powers - Ottoman, Germany, & Austria-Hungary 3. new technologies of warfare increased number of causalities - 8+ million dead, 20+ million wounded 4. EU exhausted & bankrupt 5. Treaty of Versailles 1919, officially ended the war (11/11/11am) [ US's veterans' day ] a. Germany blamed
B. "In between years" 1920's & 1930's 1. many unsettled & unresolved problems 2. Germany minority groups in newly formed nations wanted Germany to control their destiny & territory 3. many Germans resented the disarmament & payment accords to the treat - TOO harsh! 4. major leaders a. England - Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister 1) Munich Agreement w/ Hitler ~ "peace in our time" 2) "appeasement" after Hitler seized the rest of Czehoslovakia b. Winston Churchill, Prime Minister (1940-1945, 1951-1955) c. King George VI (Edward VIII-brother) 1) father of Queen Elizabeth II 2) Edward VIII - abdicated, only British sovereign to resign voluntarily 3) married a divorce women d. Italy - Benito Mussolini e. Germany - Adolph Hitler - Nazism (NSP) f. Spanish - Francisco Franco-nationalist forces vs. loyalist in Spanish Civil War
[ a dictator & facist gov. ] 5. Spanish Civil War a. Dictator Franco, 1939-1975, & the Facist "Monarchs" supported by Germany & Italy b. the monarch of Alfonso XIII had been overthrown, 1941 c. yrs of political & civil unrest election 1) Parliament evenly divided between leftists & rightists = very volatile situation d. Alfonso voluntarily resigned, a Republic proclaimed e. testing ground for WWII - forces of Fascism vs. Communism f. March '39 better-armed Monarchist won, conquered Madrid g. many volunteers from democratic nations 1) Abraham Lincoln Battalion - 1st racially - integrated American military unit 2) **Oliver Law** - 1st black man to lead white America combat troops 3) The Soviets aided money the loyalists - The Republicans h. Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe blitzkrieg, systematic destruction-shocked the world 1) Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Guernica painting 2) most famous anti-war painting on the destruction of war i. Ernest Hemingway's book For Whom the Bell Tolls 1) revealed the realities behind "the good fight" of the Loyalists 2) considered his finest work, wrote as a foreign correspondent 3) "No man ever entered the earth more honorably then those who died in Spain" - Al Battalion
C. World War II 1. began in 1939 Germany seized Austria & Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland (MA '38) 2. known as "The Great Patriotic War" SU a. Axis Powers - Germany, Italy, Japan b. Allies - France, Great Britain, Russia, China, US 3. war ended in 1945 a. Holocaust killed 12 million, including 6 million Jews 1) Kristallnact - "night of broken glass" 11/9/38
[ day when Jewish owned stores' windows were destroyed ] 2) "You must learn how to hate." ~ Hitler 4. more people & property destroyed than any other European war 5. Nuremberg Trials a. series of war crime trials 1945-1949 b. accused tried for 3 types of crimes 1) Crimes against peace-planning & waging aggressive war 2) War Crimes - wanton acts of destruction of communities, killing hostages 3) Crimes against humanity - genocide c. trials est. new principles in the law of nations, ie, above all, every person is responsible for their own actions d. Geneva Conventions 1864 & 1959 1) proper wartime behavior, POWs - humane
D. Post War - Europe 1. WWII downfall as center of world power a. lost control on most colonies in Africa & Asia b. "The Great Game" 1901 Rudyard Kipling steppes & deserts of Central Asia, Br vs. Russians (for control), today Islamic nations vs. West EU, Japan, US @ stake: oil & minerals, stability & democratic reform c. Cold War - US & USSR as world powers 2. Europe Split ~ hegemonic influence a. West economically & politically dependent on US 1) The European Recovery Plan aka The Marshall Plan - returned to pre-war production b. East - USSR seized most, gov was communistic 1) slow recovery/Soviet assistance
E. The Cold War 1. NATO ~ US & Canada joined W. EU a. common military defense alliances to contain the USSR & communism 2. Warsaw Pact - 1955, mutual defense pact a. most Eastern European nations & USSR b. ended @ collapse of USSR 3. Hungarian revolt, 1956 a. popular uprising, encouraged debate & criticism b. revels won the 1st phase Nagy, premier est. a multiparty system c. Stalinist-type domination & exploitation took overthrown 4. Czechoslovakia 1968 ~ Soviet/WP invasion ! a. democratic reform movement crushed USSR & WP b. Alexander Dubcek liberal reforms "Prague Springs"
F. Annus Mirabilis ~ "Year of Miracles" 1989 1. Gorbachev reforms, President Ronald Reagan, Pope John Paul II = major push for change!! And end to communism . . . . . . [ "Iron Maggie" ] 2. Eastern European nations rapidly moved away from a. the Warsaw Pact b. socialism/communism to 1) free market capitalism 2) democratic reform c. Germany (re)unites - 1990 d. Czechoslovakia "Velvet Revolution" 1993 e. USSR collapse 8/91 1) Warsaw Pact non-existent 3. by 1994 Central & Eastern EU nations began to push for full membership in NATO a. March 1999 Czech Republic, Poland, & Hungary b. membership increases to 26 members c. PFP-Partnership for Peace 1994
G. Europe Unity & Disunity of the '90's 1. Yugoslavia "The land of the Southern Slavs" began to break up in '92 ~ failing nation-state a. Jan 20, '90 Communist Party called on parliament to enact "political pluralism" including a multiparty system 1) Balkanization - to break up into mutual hostile political units b) Croatia & Slovina formally declared independence June 25, 1991 1.) Serbs sent in medical & arms supplies to Serbian revels in Croatia c) Republics of Serbia & Montenegro a new "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" 4/17/92 1.) Yugoslavia maintained control of the arms 2.) hatred from WWII, the Croats supported the Nazis, the Serbs the Communists d) Serb main supplies to the ethnic Serb guerillas in Bosnia e) division *** know for quiz 1.) Croatians's ~ Roman Catholics 2.) Serbian's ~ Orthodox a.) support from Russia 3.) Muslim's ~ Bosnia-Herzegovina f) 3/14/02 new union of Serbia & Montenegro 1.) no more Yugoslavia g. Kosovo 1.) nominally autonomous power 2.) majority Muslim 3.) Serbian began "ethnic cleansing" in '99 4.) The Kosovo Liberation Army vs. Serbs 2. Helsinki Agreement, 1975 cooperation in matters of economy, peace keeping & promote human rights a. post-WWII borders upheld b. East & West Europe. USSR, US, & Canada 3. Unity ~ Maastricht Treaty (Netherlands) a. 1914 - 1918 Great Britain & France allies b. 1951 European Coal & Steel "6" [ ← talks about the mentioned countries ]
[ cartel - economic organization that sets the price ] (West Germany, Great Britain, Luxembourg, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium) [ This crushed American coal & steel industries while ↑ were succeeding well in economy ] c. 1957, join atomic-energy group, created the EEC - European Economic Community d. 1967 EEC becomes EC, dropped economic [ became European Community ] e. 1991 signed Maastricht Treaty - 12 nations, now EU ~ European Union
European Union @ 50 ~ EU! [ all EU abbreviations will be referring to "European Union" ] • Family of democratic European countries ~ leds never have gone to war vs. each other . . . Liberal Constitutional Democracies • Transparency [ must let there be no secrets w/ gov. ] • Rule of law • Respect for human rights • Committed working together for peace & prosperity • cooperation on trade, the environment, transport, & employment • 489 million ppl & 27 member countries [ PIIGS came in ] • Newest May 1, 2004, 10 countries • ??? wider vs. deeper • New objective a constitution "Christianity" included in document or NOT?!
[ Christianity was excluded to not offend Turkey ]
[ England & Germany are considering switching back to their own currencies ] • Foundation w/ Treaty of Paris, 1951 established ECSC
[ Anna Rosmus "Nasty Girl" *** know for quiz ] • Schengen Agreement - to eliminate all border controls on person moving between countries as of 12/07 24/27 implemented the arrangements • French statesmen Jean Monnet & Robert Schuman the architects • Jacques Delors - president of the commission between 1986 - 1990 • Foreign policy 2 camps ~ "Atlanticists" - side w/ US & NAOTO "Gaulists" more independent & foreign & military policy [ Charles de Gaul - WWII French general ] Division according to Donald Rumsfeld (SOD [ secretary of defense ], 2001 - 2006) "old Europe" & "new Europe"
I. General Info
A. Facts 1. birthplace of western civilization 2. influential on world development a. history - exploration b. philosophy - religion
[ religious backgrounds in US & Latin America come from Rome ] c. ideology - gov
[ democracy comes from Ancient Greece ] 3. continent - subregions a. Eastern (Central) b. Western
B. Geography 1. major cities~refer to map 2. 2nd smallest Australia, 2.9) -4 sq. miles 3. population of 700 million +, density 65 ppl/sq. mile 4. 40+ nations a. largest - Russia ~ 6.6m sq. m b. smallest - Vatican City ~ 109 acres 5. highest point - Mt. Elbrus ~ 18,481 ft 6. lowest point - Caspian Depression ~ 92 ft 7. physical features - located on map a. Mt. ranges b. rivers …show more content…
c. major islands
C. Land Regions 1. Northwest Mountains a. some of the oldest rock formations on earth 2. The Great European Planins a. very fertile land 3. Central Uplands [ Part of Germany + Poland ] a. rich mineral resources 4. The Alpine Mountain System a. heavy forest cover the upper slopes
[ global warming has caused snow to melt ]
2. Cultural
A. Urban/Rural 1. Urbanization ~ "Americanization" a. modern sky scrapers b. fast food chains, supermarkets c. malls d. old vs. new city 1) farmer's market 2) fortress/castles & cathedrals 3) walled city 4) new ethnics
[ Muslims from Africa have caused some trouble in EU. ] 2. country ~ "traditional way of life" 3. religious divisions a. Northern ~ Protestant b. Southern ~ Roman Catholic c. Eastern ~ Orthodox
B. Social classes 1. have vs. have nots 2. not until the late 19th century, women & peasants voted 3. Class structure a. worker b. peasant ~ "poor farmer" c. landowners d. industrialists 4. Middle class emerged through professional jobs 5. Class by rank & privilege = obedience & respect a. royalty b. nobility c. church officials 1) clergy 2) Hierarchy d. everyone else 6. Social mobility a. marriage b. education c. achievement d. financial success 7. Family a. most important in society 1) responsible for the individual
[ seen more prominent in Germany, Italy, Poland - particularly southern EU ]
3. Government & Education
A. Government's role 1. major part in running economies & providing for the basic welfare of the ppl 2. much greater role in national affairs 3. gov. owns & operates infrastructure a. airlines b. railroads c. communication 4. major social welfare programs a Otto von Bismark - created 1st social security program in the mid-18th century b. many social entitlements
[ social security was adopted by US during Great Depression ] 1) free medical care 2) Norway a) paid month vacation b) free college education 3) Sweden a) allowance children political & economic unity b. ECU > European Currency Unit
[ PIIGS countries (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece, & Spain - weaker economy) weaken euro currencies BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) countries MIST (Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea, Turkey) - newly rising economic powers ] c. The Treaty: 1) policies - social issues & infrastructure 2) money - common currency 3) politics - single foreign policy 4) defense - common policy 5) European Parliament 6) Immigration - freer movement 7) citizenship - "citizen of the union"
B. Education 1. vastly literate - +90% 2. oldest & most respected universities 3. some of the world's leading libraries
[ Oxford library has every single book published by an English author ]
II. History of Europe
1. Early
A. Prehistoric 1. early human - over 1 million yrs ago *2. 6000 BC farming developed [ major step for civilization ] a. final steps to civilization b. settlement avoided the search for food 3. entire continent involved in farming, except the northern densely forested region
B.
Early Civilization 1. developed on the islands in the Aegean Sea 3000-1000 BCE (BC) 2. post 100 BC - tribes united & formed units called "polis" - Greek word for city- states, evolved into political ~ Early democracy 3. height of civilization 400-300 BC a. Athens ~ educated = butter [ most money was put into ed. & arts ] b. Sparta ~ military = guns [ money was put into military ] c. Peloponnesian Wars 1) Sparta defeated Athens 404 BC a) humiliating peace treaty, cruel rule 2) 371 BC Sparta lost any claim to supreme Greece d. a northern kingdom, Macedonia seized control of Greece in 338 BC 1) Alexander the Great began in 336 BC to build an empire, died in 323 BC [ ATG - Macedonia king; created a great empire ] a) city-states gained independence 4. demos-people, kratia-power or rule [ democracy ]
1) Alexander the Great b. Historians' Verdict 1. Visionary - constructing a fusion of East & West 2. Cruel and Unstable - megalomaniac, an ancient Stalin/Hitler - did not care about unifying mankind, but power & grabbing territory 3. Brought Western Ideas of Civilization to the East - methods seemingly brutal by today's standards but acceptable at the
time 4. historians divided - from blind wrath to acts of selfless generosity
D. Roman Empire 1. 27BCE-CE 180 greatest power (anno domini) a. Pax Romana - Roman Peace [ 200 yrs of Roman peace ] 1) there was no country strong enough to threaten Rome, peace ensured b. Plebeians-common people vs. Patricians-aristrocrats 1) Plebeians could vote, not hold office 2) 451 BCE 1st time laws written - "12 Tables" a) basic Roman legal code for 1000 yrs b) rights & duties of the individual citizens
[ children born w/in marriage, fathers could decide whether they could kill them or not ] 2. Christianity began in Palestine a. early Christians at first persecuted b. early 300 CE Emperor Constantine allowed religious freedom 3. Constantine dies 337 the empire began to break up a. 395 east Byzantine - Constantinople b. west Rome - Roman Catholic Church c. empire too large for one man to rule 4. contributions from Greece & Rome helped people understand their importance in society
E. Germanic Invasions ~ "The Great Migration" 1. from the north barbarians attacked a. the Huns drove them further west b. Germanic tribes moved throughout EU c. Slavic tribes in Eastern EU
2. Middle Ages (Medieval Period) [ FNS Failing Nation States ] fall of the Roman Empire small kingdoms & powerful states ruled Roman Catholic Church (RCC) very powerful force Towns developed
A. Development 1. the Franks [ tribe in Germany ] the most powerful kingdom 2. greatest power, Charlemagne (768-814) a. crowned emperor by the Pope, 800 [ crowned on Xmas - divine right ] b. empire began to break up w/ his death 3. Manorialism - chief economic system a. landlord estate b. big manor house [ ppl divided into occupations such as nuns and warriors ] 4. Otto I - Germany crowned by Pope, 962 a. "The Great" b. won Slavic lands extending the frontiers of the German kingdom c. 951 married the queen of Italy [ leads to Italy & Germany pact of WWII ] d. deposed Pope John XII & replaced him w/ Pope Leo VIII, 962 e. grandson Otto II saw himself as world leader of Christianity, goal~universal Christian state 5. LE - life expectancy 30 yrs a. disease, famine, war, & low birth rate 6. fall of the Frankish Empire ~ military & political system of feudalism developed a. period of peace & security ~ Lords ruled 1000CE 7. towns began to grow, trade increased a. peasants left the farms b. middle class developed & supported the kings vs. the feudal lords 1) paid kings taxes for protection & freedom develop businesses 2) kings paid armies that could force the feudal lords to accept their authority 8. MAGNA CARTA (L.) "Great Charter" a. King John of England trial by jury, 1215 b. Barons forced King John to approve giving many rights to the English aristocracy c. placed the king under the law & checked his royal power ~ "checks & balances" d. "due process of law" ~ base of democracy 9. early 1300's troubles disrupted life in Western EU a. wars, disease, & economic problems b. breakdown of feudalism, law & order & civil wars c. The Hundred Years War 1337-1453 [ wars were periodic not continuous ] 1) English & French kings fought for control of France a) territorial rights & succession to France throne b) conclusion England status as a power on the continent c) destroyed trade & exhausted both economies d) destroyed French nobility, created a new social order 2) Black Death, Bubonic Plague, 1347-50 killed 1/4 of the population - ("houses were emptied, cities abandoned, countrysides untilled, fields heaped w/ corpses & a vast, dreadful solitude over the world . . . " Petrarch - rats made a human revolution!)
[ The English Bill of Rights were shown in class. ] 3) severe famines & droughts *** fall of the Roman Empire 476 ~ "Veni Vidi Vici" [ "I came, saw and conquered" ], Holy Roman Empire - 962 by Charlemagne lasted until 1806 10. Muslim Influence a. Spanish Moors [ dark-skinned Spanish ] threatened all of EU until the French defeat the Spanish Moors @ the "Battle of Tours" in 732*** 1) powerful in Spain until 1200's b. Muslim Turks conquered much of EU 1) Ottoman Empire - mid 1500-1800's 11. Crusades 1096-1270 - 9 major wars ~ Middle East a. West EU military forces try to 'liberate' the Holy Land from Muslim rule
[ several losses for one; did very poorly ] b. Abandoned conquer of Holy Land in 1500's, shifted attention to Americas 12. Cultural, Economy, & Political change less concerned w/ religious teaching, more Humanism to understand man & his world [ children as old as 8 were sent to battle ]
B. Renaissance - "rebirth" ****know date of this event**** 1. 300 yrs of great advancement in arts & literature in EU → "earthquake" 2. began in Italy early 1300's 3. spread through most of EU 1400 & 1500's 4. major growth of democracy renewed interest in education & scientific research 5. Johannes Gutenberg invented movable type - revolutionized spread of info - German printer 6. Philosophers a. John Locke c. JJ Roussaeu e. Montesquieu b. T. Hobbes d. N. Machiabelli
C. Inquisition 1. origin Constantine 306-337, Roman Catholic Church seek out & punished heretics 2. 1231 Pope Gregory IX created special court to investigate & have heretics change beliefs (France, Germany, Italy, & Spain) a. torture & sentence to die by burning 3. Spanish most complete 1500's 4. today condemned by RCC for violating modern standards of justice
[ "backsliding" Christian converts to Jewish or Muslim faith for economic gain ]
D. Reformation 1. religious movement 1500's change RCC a. lead to birth to Protestantism 1) other Christian churches (RCC & OC) 2. Martin Lurther, 1571 Reform Movement a. Church neglected its spiritual responsibility b. Lost confidence in church leaders 3. Many Protestant churches established over 40 yrs 4. counter reformation in the RCC a. renewal movement 1500-1600's 1) revival, purify "in head & membership" b. two main fronts 1) rebirth of faith among the ppls 2) reassessment of principles by leaders
[ Enlightment 6 key ideas: reason, nature/natural laws, happiness, progress, liberty, toleration ] c. Council of Trent 1545-1563 1) "Seven sacraments" 2) church authority ~ infallibility of the Pope 3) est. schools, sent missionaries d. New World, new frontiers 5. North~Protestant, South~Catholics a. division contributed 6. "Thirty Year War" a. religious war in Germany
[ last religious war; The Balkans of the 1990s ] b. last major European war of religion c. first all-European struggle for power d. larger part to alter the balance of power e. 5/23/1618 a number of Protestant Bohemian noblemen threw two royal governors out the windows in Prague - "Defenestration of Prague" [ getting rid of the Catholics ] 1) rebellion against the Catholic king's policies, privileges & power f. many different locations & time periods 1) ended w/ most European nations involved g. Peace of Westphalia, 1648 settled territory 1) destroyed HRE 2) Sweden dominate power in N. EU 3) France replaced Spain dominate power in W. EU h. Conclusion 1) many areas destroyed 2) decline in culture 3) 10,000's left EU for the Americas
E. Rise of Great Powers
**Cavaliers (1atin "mounted horsemen") horsemen, later mounted knights nickname to the supporters of King Charles I opposed to the ruling body of Parliamentarians in 17th England** 1. Feudal lords declined, kings grew stronger a. RCC lost much influence, nations united
F. Exploration "The Great Age of Discovery" 1400s 1. colonies in Africa, Asia, & the Americas a. imperialism b. seeds of the 20th/21st C. problems 2. growing trade = more wealth & power 3. early 1700s great powers dominate EU
G. Age of Reason 1600-1700 1. use of reason to determine the truth a. led to modern scientific method 2. condemned superstition & questions traditional beliefs 3. feelings & individuality not reason & order
3. New Age
A. Democracy & Nationalism 1. challenge of traditional authority 2. nationalism unified the nation in fight for democratic gov. 3. military, economic & political terms played a role in the development of EU *a. lebensraum - territory considered for national existence ~ Hitler 1) Charlemagne's policy Drang Nach Osten push to the east 2) German nobles took properties/Slavic serfs for labor (slaves) *b. revanchism - policy pursued by a gov. to recover lost territories *c. irredentism - policy of a nation to incorporate historically/ethically related to it w/in its own boundaries
B. French Revolution 1. lower & growing middle class revolted ~ Louis XVI seized control of the gov. a. Declaration of Rights of Man & the Citizen 1) principle of human liberty & rights ~ individual
[ "Liberté (freedom), Egalité (equality), Fraternité (brotherhood)" ] 2. three points of the revolution Reform (1789-1791) Radical yrs (1791-1794) - terror, violence Counter-Reformation (1795-1799) 3. Napoleon Bonaparte rose through the ranks of military & seized gov. in 1799 a. French Revolution ended 4. Other European monarchies feared the spread of Democratic ideas 5. Napoleon began to attack France's neighbors a. previously ~ lost most of army invading Russia b. European ally powers defeated Napoleon in 1815 @ Battle of Waterloo (South of Brussels) 6. Congress of Vienna 1814-1815 a. To reorganize EU post-Napoleonic Wars b. Leaders of Austria, Great Britain, Prussia, & Russia agreed to return EU back to pre- France systems c. Tried to crush Democratic & nationalistic ideas, however unsuccessful d. Monarchies restored in France & Spain 7. by 1900s nearly all EU nations had a constitution & at least some democratic institutions Battle of Trafalgar 10/21/1805
Naval Battle ~ off the southern coast of Spain.
Entrance to the Strait of Gibraltar
The Continental System - Napoleon's policy of trading w/ only members on the continent
Napoleonic wars between the Franco-Spanish fleets vs. English ships
Lord Horatio Nelson (1758-1805) "England expects every man will do his duty." *** Shot as the British were in sight of victory, a major hero in England
England didn't lose a ship, destroyed/captured 1/2 of the Spanish and French ships.
Napoleon gave up on invading England, turned his sights on Russia
Outcome England gained supremacy of the seas for 100 yrs.
[ England was not challenged until WWI. ] Pax Britannia Pax Romana Pax Americana
C. The Industrial Revolution 1. Began in Great Britain during 1700's a. m. 1800's widespread in W. EU 2. factories appeared, towns grew into industrial cities, many social changes w/ the emergence of the middle class a. poor pay & living conditions b. Marx's philosophy geared > oppressed > workers rise up against the wealthy 3. by the late 19th century most industrial nations made progress a. laws regulating working conditions b. raised the standard of living *SOL 4. Irish Potato Famine 1845-1849 a. Irish revolt vs. the English, 1641 1) Oliver Cromwell [ is Hitler to the Jews ], England crushed the revolt, 1649 b. England intolerant of the Irish uprising 1) ethnic & racial intolerance a) violence & vandalism c. in the 19th century Irish population grew rapidly 1) many absent English landowners - landlords d. famine for 50+ yrs in the making 1)disastrous British economic policy 2) destructive farming methods 3) "the Blight" potato fungus almost instantly destroyed the primary source of food ~ majority 4) results a) 1/2 million to 1 million dead b) 2 million refugees - "Irish Diaspora" US, Canada, Australia e. Irish fight for home rule 1) Easter Monday, 1916 the "republicans" wanting a complete independent rebellion began a rebellion, were defeated by British troops a) executed 15 republican leaders, post-uprising
[ huge mistake & created martyrs ] 2) 1922 Irish independence a) divided Ireland - North & the Republic b) 26 [ 26 counties of Ireland ] & 6 [ 6 counties of N. Ireland (Olstra sp?) = 1 (counties) c) Sinn Fein - political branch of the IRA (Irish Republican Army)
D. Colonial Expansion late 19th century 1. Imperialism a. "The sun never sets on the British Empire" 2. raw materials taken from Africa & Asia
III. Twenty Century Europe
"Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori." "It is sweet & dignified to die for the fatherland." ~ Windfred Owen (1893-1918) The old lie
1. The World Wars
A. WWI 1. June, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, assassinate by Gavrilo Princip, a Serbian nationalist trained in terrorism by the Black Hand Society a. formed in 1911, terrorist methods to promote the liberation of Serbs outside of Servian from Hapsburg or Ottoman rule b. daggers/blackhands ~ demanded money on pain of death or destruction of property 2. first known as The Great War a. Allies - Triple Entente - England, France, & Russia b. Central Powers - Ottoman, Germany, & Austria-Hungary 3. new technologies of warfare increased number of causalities - 8+ million dead, 20+ million wounded 4. EU exhausted & bankrupt 5. Treaty of Versailles 1919, officially ended the war (11/11/11am) [ US's veterans' day ] a. Germany blamed
B. "In between years" 1920's & 1930's 1. many unsettled & unresolved problems 2. Germany minority groups in newly formed nations wanted Germany to control their destiny & territory 3. many Germans resented the disarmament & payment accords to the treat - TOO harsh! 4. major leaders a. England - Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister 1) Munich Agreement w/ Hitler ~ "peace in our time" 2) "appeasement" after Hitler seized the rest of Czehoslovakia b. Winston Churchill, Prime Minister (1940-1945, 1951-1955) c. King George VI (Edward VIII-brother) 1) father of Queen Elizabeth II 2) Edward VIII - abdicated, only British sovereign to resign voluntarily 3) married a divorce women d. Italy - Benito Mussolini e. Germany - Adolph Hitler - Nazism (NSP) f. Spanish - Francisco Franco-nationalist forces vs. loyalist in Spanish Civil War
[ a dictator & facist gov. ] 5. Spanish Civil War a. Dictator Franco, 1939-1975, & the Facist "Monarchs" supported by Germany & Italy b. the monarch of Alfonso XIII had been overthrown, 1941 c. yrs of political & civil unrest election 1) Parliament evenly divided between leftists & rightists = very volatile situation d. Alfonso voluntarily resigned, a Republic proclaimed e. testing ground for WWII - forces of Fascism vs. Communism f. March '39 better-armed Monarchist won, conquered Madrid g. many volunteers from democratic nations 1) Abraham Lincoln Battalion - 1st racially - integrated American military unit 2) **Oliver Law** - 1st black man to lead white America combat troops 3) The Soviets aided money the loyalists - The Republicans h. Nazi Germany's Luftwaffe blitzkrieg, systematic destruction-shocked the world 1) Pablo Picasso (1881-1973) Guernica painting 2) most famous anti-war painting on the destruction of war i. Ernest Hemingway's book For Whom the Bell Tolls 1) revealed the realities behind "the good fight" of the Loyalists 2) considered his finest work, wrote as a foreign correspondent 3) "No man ever entered the earth more honorably then those who died in Spain" - Al Battalion
C. World War II 1. began in 1939 Germany seized Austria & Czechoslovakia and invaded Poland (MA '38) 2. known as "The Great Patriotic War" SU a. Axis Powers - Germany, Italy, Japan b. Allies - France, Great Britain, Russia, China, US 3. war ended in 1945 a. Holocaust killed 12 million, including 6 million Jews 1) Kristallnact - "night of broken glass" 11/9/38
[ day when Jewish owned stores' windows were destroyed ] 2) "You must learn how to hate." ~ Hitler 4. more people & property destroyed than any other European war 5. Nuremberg Trials a. series of war crime trials 1945-1949 b. accused tried for 3 types of crimes 1) Crimes against peace-planning & waging aggressive war 2) War Crimes - wanton acts of destruction of communities, killing hostages 3) Crimes against humanity - genocide c. trials est. new principles in the law of nations, ie, above all, every person is responsible for their own actions d. Geneva Conventions 1864 & 1959 1) proper wartime behavior, POWs - humane
D. Post War - Europe 1. WWII downfall as center of world power a. lost control on most colonies in Africa & Asia b. "The Great Game" 1901 Rudyard Kipling steppes & deserts of Central Asia, Br vs. Russians (for control), today Islamic nations vs. West EU, Japan, US @ stake: oil & minerals, stability & democratic reform c. Cold War - US & USSR as world powers 2. Europe Split ~ hegemonic influence a. West economically & politically dependent on US 1) The European Recovery Plan aka The Marshall Plan - returned to pre-war production b. East - USSR seized most, gov was communistic 1) slow recovery/Soviet assistance
E. The Cold War 1. NATO ~ US & Canada joined W. EU a. common military defense alliances to contain the USSR & communism 2. Warsaw Pact - 1955, mutual defense pact a. most Eastern European nations & USSR b. ended @ collapse of USSR 3. Hungarian revolt, 1956 a. popular uprising, encouraged debate & criticism b. revels won the 1st phase Nagy, premier est. a multiparty system c. Stalinist-type domination & exploitation took overthrown 4. Czechoslovakia 1968 ~ Soviet/WP invasion ! a. democratic reform movement crushed USSR & WP b. Alexander Dubcek liberal reforms "Prague Springs"
F. Annus Mirabilis ~ "Year of Miracles" 1989 1. Gorbachev reforms, President Ronald Reagan, Pope John Paul II = major push for change!! And end to communism . . . . . . [ "Iron Maggie" ] 2. Eastern European nations rapidly moved away from a. the Warsaw Pact b. socialism/communism to 1) free market capitalism 2) democratic reform c. Germany (re)unites - 1990 d. Czechoslovakia "Velvet Revolution" 1993 e. USSR collapse 8/91 1) Warsaw Pact non-existent 3. by 1994 Central & Eastern EU nations began to push for full membership in NATO a. March 1999 Czech Republic, Poland, & Hungary b. membership increases to 26 members c. PFP-Partnership for Peace 1994
G. Europe Unity & Disunity of the '90's 1. Yugoslavia "The land of the Southern Slavs" began to break up in '92 ~ failing nation-state a. Jan 20, '90 Communist Party called on parliament to enact "political pluralism" including a multiparty system 1) Balkanization - to break up into mutual hostile political units b) Croatia & Slovina formally declared independence June 25, 1991 1.) Serbs sent in medical & arms supplies to Serbian revels in Croatia c) Republics of Serbia & Montenegro a new "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia" 4/17/92 1.) Yugoslavia maintained control of the arms 2.) hatred from WWII, the Croats supported the Nazis, the Serbs the Communists d) Serb main supplies to the ethnic Serb guerillas in Bosnia e) division *** know for quiz 1.) Croatians's ~ Roman Catholics 2.) Serbian's ~ Orthodox a.) support from Russia 3.) Muslim's ~ Bosnia-Herzegovina f) 3/14/02 new union of Serbia & Montenegro 1.) no more Yugoslavia g. Kosovo 1.) nominally autonomous power 2.) majority Muslim 3.) Serbian began "ethnic cleansing" in '99 4.) The Kosovo Liberation Army vs. Serbs 2. Helsinki Agreement, 1975 cooperation in matters of economy, peace keeping & promote human rights a. post-WWII borders upheld b. East & West Europe. USSR, US, & Canada 3. Unity ~ Maastricht Treaty (Netherlands) a. 1914 - 1918 Great Britain & France allies b. 1951 European Coal & Steel "6" [ ← talks about the mentioned countries ]
[ cartel - economic organization that sets the price ] (West Germany, Great Britain, Luxembourg, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium) [ This crushed American coal & steel industries while ↑ were succeeding well in economy ] c. 1957, join atomic-energy group, created the EEC - European Economic Community d. 1967 EEC becomes EC, dropped economic [ became European Community ] e. 1991 signed Maastricht Treaty - 12 nations, now EU ~ European Union
European Union @ 50 ~ EU! [ all EU abbreviations will be referring to "European Union" ] • Family of democratic European countries ~ leds never have gone to war vs. each other . . . Liberal Constitutional Democracies • Transparency [ must let there be no secrets w/ gov. ] • Rule of law • Respect for human rights • Committed working together for peace & prosperity • cooperation on trade, the environment, transport, & employment • 489 million ppl & 27 member countries [ PIIGS came in ] • Newest May 1, 2004, 10 countries • ??? wider vs. deeper • New objective a constitution "Christianity" included in document or NOT?!
[ Christianity was excluded to not offend Turkey ]
[ England & Germany are considering switching back to their own currencies ] • Foundation w/ Treaty of Paris, 1951 established ECSC
[ Anna Rosmus "Nasty Girl" *** know for quiz ] • Schengen Agreement - to eliminate all border controls on person moving between countries as of 12/07 24/27 implemented the arrangements • French statesmen Jean Monnet & Robert Schuman the architects • Jacques Delors - president of the commission between 1986 - 1990 • Foreign policy 2 camps ~ "Atlanticists" - side w/ US & NAOTO "Gaulists" more independent & foreign & military policy [ Charles de Gaul - WWII French general ] Division according to Donald Rumsfeld (SOD [ secretary of defense ], 2001 - 2006) "old Europe" & "new Europe"