Communicative Competence in English Language

English in India

Officially English has a status of assistant language, but in fact it is the most important language of India. After Hindi it is the most commonly spoken language in India and probably the most read and written language in India. Indians who know English will always try to show that they know English. English symbolizes in Indians minds, better education, better culture and higher intellect. Indians who know English often mingle it with Indian languages in their conversations. It is also usual among Indians to abruptly move to speak fluent English in the middle of their conversations. English also serves as the communicator among Indians who speak different language. English is very important in some systems – legal, financial, educational,business – in India. Until the beginning of 1990s, foreign movies in India weren’t translated or dubbed in Indian languages, but were broadcast in English and were meant for English speakers only. The reason Indians give such importance to English is related to the fact that India was a British colony (see Europeans in India).
When the British started ruling India, they searched for Indian mediators who could help them to administer India. The British turned to high casteIndians to work for them. Many high caste Indians, especially the Brahmans worked for them. The British policy was to create an Indian class who should think like the British, or as it was said then in Britain “Indians in blood and color but English in taste, in opinions and morals and intellect”. The British also established in India universities based on British models with emphasis on English. These Indians also got their education in British universities. The English Christian missionaries came to India from 1813 and they also built schools at primary level for Indians in which the language of instruction was local language. Later on the missionaries built high schools with English as the language of instruction which obliged the Indians who wanted to study to have a good knowledge of English. The British rulers began building their universities in India from 1857. English became the first language in Indian education. The ‘modern’ leaders of that era in India also supported English language and claimed it to be the main key towards success. Indians who knew good English were seen as the new elite of India. Many new schools were established in which the language of instruction was English. According to the British laws the language of instruction at university level was English and therefore schools that emphasized English were preferred by ambitious Indians. Even after India’s independence, English remained the main language of India. Officially it was given a status of an assistant language and was supposed to terminate officially after 15 years of India’s independence, but it still remains the important language of India.
Even today schools in India that emphasis English are considered better schools and the same is the case at university levels, even though there is a trend towards Indianization. In the 1970s and 1980s about one third of the Indian schools had English as their first language. For most of these students, English is their first language and it is easier for them to communicate, read and write in English than in Indian languages, including their mother tongues.
Just like the Americans, Australians or even the British who have their unique English words and phrases, the Indians also have their own unique English. The Indians and the Indian English language press uses many words derived from Indian languages, especially from Hindi. Other than that, the Indian accent is sometimes difficult for non-Indians to understand. There are some Indian pronunciations that don’t exist in non Indian languages. The British also had problems with that and they caused some changes in Indian words so that they could pronounce them. Even the Indians started using these changed words and made them part of their English. Two examples of such changed words are currey and sari.

English Language Education in India

nglish Language Education in Rural Schools of India: The Situation, the Policy and the Curriculum
Submitted by Rama Meganathan on 30 October, 2009 - 23:46
English Language Education in Rural Schools of India:

The Situation, the Policy and the Curriculum

Abstract

This paper attempts to bring in the issues related to English language education situation in rural schools in India, the state policy on language education, quality questions in second / foreign language education through an analysis of language policy practices and the curriculum andsyllabi of five states (provinces) in the country. The language policy in school education emerged as a political and social consensus, though established equality among the languages in school education, is somehow heading for a competitive bi / multilingualism in which the English language is (perceived to be) over taking Indian languages. On the contrary the quality of English language education in majority of Indian schools presents a very appalling picture. Teacher’s language proficiency, exposure to language and materials are major concerns for quality English language learning. An analysis of curricular statements and syllabi of the states of Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland reveals how planning for language in education is not looked at holistically in terms of basic assumptions about language learning / acquisition (how language learning takes place), learner profiles and the contexts in which learning takes place, and the recent developments in language learning-teaching. Most states refuse to move beyond the good old structural approach of the 1950s and the 60s, while they stress for communication skills to help the learner for an upward movement. This, in reality, reveals the paradoxical situations of an English language education which would further place the rural learner in a very disadvantaged situation.

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1. Introduction

The increasing demand for English – both as a language and as a medium driven by the instrumental motivation has compelled most governments at the state (provincial) level to introduce English as a language from class One. The recent curricular revision at the national level culminated in the framework for National Curriculum Framework – 2005 (NCF) records the half a century development very objectively when it says, “The level of introduction of English has now become a matter of political response to people’s aspirations rendering almost irrelevant an academic debate on the merits of very early introduction” (Position Paper Teaching of English 2005 - p1). English is an institutionalized subject in the school curriculum. Twenty six out of the thirty five states and union territories (the provinces and the specially created regions) introduce English as a language from class I and the remaining states introduce the language either from class three or five. There is every likelihood that these states (which do not introduce English in class I) would bring it down to class I with in a year or two. Resistance to spread of English language education is countered by genuine arguments which look at the English language as a tool for empowerment. English today is simultaneously sought after and suspected (Tickoo 1996) phenomenon. The motives, generally, are not only social-political and but academic too. While the demand increases on the one hand, the quality of English language education in our state run schools, more particularly in rural schools, presents an abysmal picture. The ‘divide’ between the urban and rural is further contributed by the way English language education is making its way as a medium of instruction. The paradox of demand and suspicion (Tickoo 1996) mentioned above could be further reflected through the paradox of access depicted by the report of the National Knowledge Commission (NKC 2007), India as it brings out rightly, “There is an irony in the situation. English has been part of our education system for more than a century. Yet English is beyond the reach of most of our young people, which makes for highly unequal access. Indeed, even now, more than one percent of our people use it as a second language, let alone a first language ……. But NKC believes that the time has come for us to teach our people, ordinary people, English as a language in schools. Early action in this sphere, would help us build an inclusive society and transform India into a knowledge society.”(P.47 )

The diverse English language education situation in the country shows both a rosy and an abysmal picture. Schools in different regions and systems operate in their contexts. The state policy on language education, curricular statements and syllabi and materials for teaching-learning of English along with teacher inputs decide the quality of education in schools more so in rural schools. An analysis of language policy practices and the curriculum and syllabi of five the states, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur and Nagaland reveals how planning for language in education is not looked at holistically in terms of basic assumptions about language learning / acquisition (how language learning takes place), learners profiles and the contexts in which learning takes place and the recent developments in language learning-teaching.

2. The Language Policy in India: The Dilemmas

The language debate in education in the formative years of India’s independence not only brought in awareness among the stakeholders of education, it also enabled the policy makers to fully attempt to realize the Constitutional vision of equality of opportunity, linguistic rights of every linguistic and ethnic community and moving towards the goal of achieving universal access to education. The Three Language Formula[1] which emerged as a political consensus[2] on languages in school education was a strategy (not a policy) (Pattanayak D.P. year not mentioned) to accommodate at least three languages with in the ten years of schooling. As the report of the Education Commission (1964-66) rightly describes it, “the impelling considerations were more political and social, than educational. In effect the formula established equality between the Hindi and the non-Hindi areas…” (p 191) India today has 92.07% schools at the primary stage teaching through mother tongue, and the rural and urban comparison shows 92.39% schools in rural areas and 90.39% school in urban areas teach through mother tongue. At the Upper Primary stage 91.34% teach through mother tongue which consists of 92.71% in rural areas and 87.37% in urban areas. 12.14% at the primary stage, 14.47% schools at upper primary and 18.53% at the secondary stage have two or more media of instruction. It is also interesting to note that 91.95% of schools in the country at the primary stage teach two or more languages. With regard to number of languages taught 90.61% of schools at the upper primary stage follow three language formula (i.e. at least three languages are taught), 84.86% of schools follow the formula at the secondary stage. (7th AISSES - NCERT 2007). Forty seven languages are used as media of instruction in schools and forty one languages are taught or used in schools (Srinivasa Rao 2008).

Multilingualism is constitutive of Indian diversity. There are about 1652 languages belonging to five different language families in this country (1971 census). Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution recognizes twenty two languages as official languages of the country, eighty seven languages are used in the print media, seventy one languages are used on radio and the administration of the country is run on thirteen different languages. But only forty seven languages are used as media of instruction in schools. Our educational system should make every conceivable effort to sustain multilingualism (Crawhall 1992; Heugh et al. 1995 among others) rather than suppress it (NCERT 2005). Pattanayak (1981) argues how our educational system has consistently weakened the advantages of grass-root multilingualism that characterizes our society. As Illich (1981) suggests, we need to make every possible effort to empower the languages of the underprivileged and tribal and endangered languages. Affirmative action is called for in this domain (NCERT 2005). To quote Pattanayak (1981), “if participatory democracy has to survive, we need to give a voice to the language of every child.” Multilingualism in education refers to the use of two or more languages as medium of instruction (UNESCO-2003).

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005 strongly advocates multilingualism in school education. This confers definite cognitive advantages. Researches have shown that that there is a highly positive relationship between bilingualism / multilingualism, cognitive flexibility, and scholastic achievement. (See Peal and Lambert 1962; Gardner and Lambert 1972; Cummins and Swain 1986). Bilingual children not only have control over several different languages but they are also academically more creative and socially more tolerant (NCERT Position Paper: Teaching of Indian Languages 2005). Using the multilingual classroom or the languages of the classroom (i.e. children) as resources to teach-learn the subjects as also of the languages would benefit in locating the child in his / her context. This also takes us to language across the curriculum perspective. The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005 provides the following guidelines for language education in schools

• Language teaching needs to be multilingual not only in terms of the number of languages offered to children but also in terms of evolving strategies that would use the multilingual classroom as a resource. • Home language(s) of children should be the medium of learning in schools. • If a school does not have provision for teaching in the children home languages(s) at the higher levels, primary school education must still be covered through the home language(s). It is imperative that we honour the child’s home language(s). According to Article 350A of our Constitution, ‘it shall be the endeavour of every state and of every local authority with in the State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups’. • Children will receive multilingual education from the outset. The Three language formula needs to be implemented in its true spirit, promoting multilingual communicative abilities for a multilingual country. • In the non-Hindi speaking states, children learn Hindi. In the case of Hindi speaking states, children learn a language not spoken in their area. Sanskrit may also be studied as Modern Indian Language (MIL) in addition to these languages. • At later stages, study of classical and foreign languages may be introduced. (3.1.1. Language Education, NCF 2005 P37)

The number of languages taught or used in Indian schools had been reduced during the period between 1973 and 1993. The number of languages used in schools in 1973 (Third All India Educational Survey, NCERT 1975) was 67; the number came down to 41 in 1993 (Sixth All India Educational Survey, NCERT 1995) (cb. Srinivasa Rao 2008). While the promise of education through / in the mother tongue of the child is made time and again, we notice that with in a period of twenty years at least 25 languages were thrown out of the school system. This means children whose mother tongues are these languages would have to undergo the burden of studying in a language which is not theirs. This only contributes to what Amartya Sen calls compounded disadvantage of those who are already disadvantaged.

Language policy planning in India presents both collaborative or additive and competitive bi-multilingualism. While the policy statements and implementation strategies inform us that the collaborative bilingualism or multilingualism is advocated, the choice of people and demands indicate there is competitive bilingualism or multilingualism, i.e. individuals using the language of their choice. There is more tilt towards the competitive bilingualism or multilingualism as felt by the some recent developments. First is the Madras High Court judgement in the year 2000 on choosing the medium of instruction against the order of the Tamil Nadu government ‘Tamil as a compulsory medium at the primary school stage”. One of the arguments in favour of nullifying the government order was that it was against the fundamental right recognised by the Union Nations that the parents have about the choice of education they would like to have their children exposed to (Ramasamy 2001). Second is the increasing demand for conversion to English medium education, irrespective of the quality. It was reported recently that a large number of state run schools in the state of Andhra Pradesh wanting to shift their affiliation to the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) in order to become English medium schools. The clear picture which emerges is English Vs. all Indian languages. English, as some argue, taking the ‘killer’ role.

3. Role and place of English

Though there is an increasing demand for the language, English has become a bone of contention for reasons of social and political, and also academic. The position paper of the National Focus Group on Teaching of English for NCF – 2005 makes it clear when it addresses the ‘English language question’

English is in India today a symbol of people’s aspiration for quality in education and a fuller participation in national and international life. Its colonial origins now forgotten or irrelevant, its initial role in independence India, tailored to high education now felt to be insufficiently inclusive socially and linguistically, the current state of English stem from its overwhelming presence on the world stage and the reflection of this in the national arena. … (P 1) 1.1. Why English? )

English is introduced in class I or class III by 26 states or union territories out of 35 and seven states or union territories introduce it in class IV or V ( Khan 2005 cb Position paper Teaching of English – 2005 NCERT). The position paper also makes an attempt to find the place and role of English in today’s context in India. Stating that ‘English does not stand alone’, the position paper argues that it (English) needs to find its place (i) Along with other Indian Languages (a) in regional medium schools: how can children’s other languages strengthen English learning? (b) in English medium schools: how can other Indian languages be valorized, reducing the perceived hegemony of English. (ii) In relation to other subjects: A language across the curriculum perspective is perhaps of particular relevance to primary education. Language is best acquired through different meaning-making contexts and hence all teaching in a sense is language teaching. This perspective also captures the centrality of language in abstract thought in secondary education (p 4). English today is a compulsory second language in the native / vernacular medium schools and in English medium schools it is competing to the status of first language.

3.1. English Language (Teaching) Situation

English language teaching situation presents a mixed picture from top to very low level in terms of teacher proficiency (TP) and the exposure of pupil to English in and outside school, i.e. the availability of English in the environment of language acquisition (EE). (Nag-Arulmani, 2000 cb NCERT 2005). Kurien (2005) identifies four types of schools as given below

1. ↑↑TP,↑↑EE (e.g. English-medium private / government-aided elite schools) Proficient teachers; varying degrees of English in the environment, including as a home or first language 2. ↑TP, ↑EE (e.g. New English-medium private schools, many of which use both English and other Indian languages): teachers with limited proficiency; children with little or no background in English; parents aspire to upward mobility through English. 3. ↓TP,↓EE (e.g. Government-aided regional-medium schools): schools with a tradition of English education along with regional languages, established by educational societies, with children from a variety of background. 4. ↓↓TP, ↓↓EE (e.g. Government regional-medium schools run by district and municipal education authorities): they enrol the largest number of elementary school children in rural India. They are also the only choice for the urban poor (who, however, have some options of access to English in the environment). Their teachers may be the least proficient in English of these four types of schools. (Position Paper Teaching of English-NCF - 2005- NCERT) (p 2)
The difference in the teaching-learning situation, learners’ exposure to the language outside the schools and parental support further divides each category into many levels. As Prabhu (1987:3) obverses that “typologies of teaching situation… should thus be seen as an aid to investigating the extend of relevance of a pedagogic proposal,” rather than as an absolute categories. The teaching situation decides where a school stands. The most rural schools in India today fall under the fourth category where we have children with almost nil or no exposure to the language, teachers’ language proficiency is in question and here are the parents who can not support their wards in learning the language.

4. The Curriculum and the syllabus of English language Education

Any curricular reform ought to take into consideration the fact that whatever appears relevant and essential today may not be suitable for tomorrow. Curriculum in countries like India bases itself on the diverse characteristics of the nation with its multiplicities. As John L. Clark (1987) remarks, a curriculum addresses the common as well as the individual aspirations.

Given the diverse and conflicting values that exist within any large social group, and given a democratic concern for the valuing of such diversity, it would seem necessary for any contemporary curriculum to attempt to embody what are agreed to be common aspirations, and yet leave space for individual interpretation within and beyond these, to accord with the individual characteristics of each teaching and learning context. (p. 9)

Goals for a comprehensive language curriculum needs to bring in aspects of language, culture, practices of people in the learning process in accordance with the local needs and concerns so that learners are able to connect with real life situations. A national curriculum (in language education) should aim for (Position Paper in Teaching of English NCERT – 2005)

... a cohesive curricular policy based on guiding principles for language teaching and acquisition, which allows for a variety of implementations suitable to local needs and resources, and which provides illustrative models for use. (p .3)

A syllabus, which is a medium to realize the aims of language education, is driven by various needs and concerns that a curricular framework aims to achieve. We expect a syllabus to present textbook developers for deigning such materials that would give scope and space for teachers to exploit the perspective to maximum extent and to go beyond the textbook to engage the learners with their peers and immediate surroundings. The main objective of a good syllabus is to enable the learner to achieve proficiency in the language in different domains. The syllabus should reflect.

i. Assumptions about language learning

ii. Appropriate themes the texts embody

iii. Objectives of teaching-learning English.

iv. Knowledge of methods expected of teachers who use the textbooks

v. Ideas on how learning materials will be constructed (What? and How?)

vi. Ideas on how learning is to be evaluated

The state run schools which mostly fall under the fourth category of schools mentioned above would need to provide a curriculum for that ensures at least minimum level of exposure to the language, materials (receive inputs) that would present the language in contexts through authentic texts (Krahsen 1985), tasks and activities where children would engage with the language and interact and develop communicational skills, proficient teachers who would ensure enabling conditions for learning the language in meaningful contexts, and an examination system that would not threaten the rural learner and declare him a failure because s/he could not pass the mark of 33% in the subject as that of a content subject. Do our state curricula provide such conditions so that the rural learners feel comfortable being in school, particularly in learning English language? Let us see through an analysis of the curricular statements and the syllabi of some of the states.

4.1. Andhra Pradesh

a. Assumptions about Language

The syllabus makes an attempt to define the two-fold goals of language curriculum as (i) attainment of basic proficiency, and (ii) the development of language as an instrument for basic interpersonal communication and later for abstract thought and knowledge. Recognizing the diverse nature of schooling and linguistic environment that prevail in India today, it calls for using meaningful and often multilingual contexts to enrich learning experiences. It recognizes input-rich communicational environment as a prerequisite to language learning.

b. Objectives

The objectives are delineated at two levels for primary stage: level I for classes I & II and level IIfor classes III, IV & V. Upper primary and secondary levels have different sets of objectives. An interesting aspect of the primary level syllabus is that through the objectives spelt out for English medium and Telugu medium or vernacular medium are common, the activities and competencies to be realized through objectives are indicated separately. Sub themes and structures are listed in detail showing which structures are to be learnt / taught through each sub theme.

Level I Objectives (classes I & II) seeks to familiarize the child with the spoken language byexposing them to the language in meaningful, interesting and real life situation though the mother tongue, signs, visuals, pictures, sketches, gestures, letters, words, single-word questions and answers, formulaic expression as communicative props. Teacher talk and listening to recorded material are some other suggested ways for exposing learners to spoken language.

Use of drawings / paintings as precursors to writing and relating these activities to oral communication and familiarizing the learner with the text (words / phrases/ sentences, rhymes) and playing the roles of birds and animals are included in the objectives.

Level II Objectives (classes III, IV & V) move from familiarsing the children with the language by exposure to enabling them to read and write, besides listening and speaking. The objectives include too many items in terms of skills and competencies. These are: (i) transforming the silent written / printed language into living speech (ii) readying the learner for reading, discussion and writing (iii) enriching vocabulary through telling, re-telling and reading aloud of stories, folktales (iv) teaching good hand writing and correct punctuation and. (v) helping them speak simple English with correct pronunciation (vi) and facilitating them to recite and appreciate rhymes and poems and classify words nouns, actions (verbs) describing words (adjectives) and linkers (conjunctions).

Level III Objectives at the Upper primary (classes VI, VII and VIII) include reading of texts of representing different genres and themes, speaking in a given situation, acquiring production skills ( to develop fluency and accuracy ) in speaking and writing., developing study skills / reference skills and understanding and appreciating jokes, riddles, anecdotes , etc. The first objective will create awareness among learners of ‘learning how to learn’. It will help learners know / understand their learning goals and evaluate their own progress.

Level IV Secondary stage (Classes IX and X) Higher order skills are introduced here to enable learners to use the language appropriately and to be creative. Learners will acquire greater proficiency, appropriacy and fluency in oral and written communication in different social settings and will shape themselves out as independent learners through self learning skills.

c. Contents of the course

The syllabus takes into account the ten core components listed in the National Policy on Education (1986). These components will cut across all subject areas. The course materials as the curriculum makes it clear should draw upon the themes integrated with the core components. The themes listed are the same themes of syllabus and guidelines developed as a follow up to the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) – 2005. However, the themes/listed in the syllabus are only suggestive and at each stage should be in line with learner’s cognitive level, interest and experience,

d. Curricular package

A single textbook is recommended for each grade up to class V. The material from class VI onwards as indicated by the syllabi should consists of (i) A Reader (ii) A Workbook and (iii) A Supplementary Reader. The number of lessons/ units in each book has also been suggested. Reader (the main textbook) should contain not more than ten comprehensive units (text, exercises / tasks activities) and five / six poems of varying lengths depending on the class. Theworkbook will have as may corresponding worksheets as the number of comprehensive units in the Reader. The Supplementary Reader will have about eight pieces meant for self-study to promote reading for information and pleasure. The material included in the package will be completed in 150 working days.

e. Evaluation

Allotment of marks in terms of weighting to each book is prescribed; the Reader will have 40%;the Workbook 40% and the Supplementary Reader 20%. Suggested evaluation procedures include what is called periodic, preferably at regular intervals of 4 to 6 weeks of actual instruction. Both oral and written evaluation methods need to be followed and the periodic tests should carry a weighting of 50% of oral and 25% of written testing at the primary level.

4.2. Mizoram
a. Status of English & Assumptions about language learning

The socio-political aspirations of people in demanding English as a language of opportunity are addressed by the proposed syllabus in the hope that within a span of five years, it should be possible to ensure basic English language proficiency including basic literacy skills of reading and writing.

b. Objectives

v Objectives have been spelt out for four levels, namely classes I and II, III to VII, VIII to X and XI & XII. Objectives are in line with the objectives mentioned in the syllabus guidelines of NCF – 2005. However, the syllabus prescribes expected learning outcomes for each class, which has not been done in the NCERT syllabus. The outcomes are listed as the ‘child should be able to acquire the skill of…’ These are listed in terms of listening, speaking, reading, writing and vocabulary for all classes, including classes I & II. Though these seem to be specific objectives, they are very specific about what each category of skills needs to consists of.

v The course content for each class is presented as language items and a range of themes for the text. Class I will have names of familiar objects, fruits, vegetable, animals and birds, basic colours, parts of body, numbers 1 – 10, etc. It also expects children to learn to write letters of the alphabets, both lower and upper case.

v In class II, it seems there is an attempt to teach grammar very explicitly. Items like present continuous, imperatives, opposites, use of ‘in’ and ‘on’, phrases and sentences, pronouns, affirmative and negative sentences, verbs, etc are also found in the list. This is in addition to vocabulary.

v Likewise, each stage has its objectives and the expected outcomes along with listed items, mainly grammar items. By the end of class X, one can expect that all grammatical items of the English language will have been covered with nothing missing.

c. Teaching- Learning Material

The Curricular Package: The proposed syllabus adopts the recommendation of NCERT syllabus of having a textbook, a workbook and a supplementary reader. The weighting in terms of marks is 40% for the textbook, 40 % for language work including oral testing and 20% for supplementary reader. (NCERT’s new generation textbooks produced as a follow up to the NCF –2005 have integrated the language and grammar components with the main textbook itself. Two books form the total package)

d. Themes for the Content

Themes listed for the textbooks are the replication of the themes listed in the NCERT syllabus.

e. Methods and Techniques

The syllabus borrows the methods and techniques from NCERT syllabus ‘for enriching learner’s experiences.’ It does not state how these would be realised in the classroom.

f. Evaluation

The syllabus recommends a periodic, regular evaluation inclusive of oral and written aspect language. Assessment of general proficiency rather than specific achievement has also been emphasised.

4. 3. Nagaland

The syllabus of Nagaland records the importance and inevitability of English language in the Indian educational system and ‘life of our people.’ The dominance of English language in higher education thereby making it a language of access to knowledge is recognized in the introduction. It is clearly stated that English has been accepted as the official language by all sections of people of Nagaland.

1. The syllabus does not indicate or provide any assumptions about nature of language, learning, learner profiles, local context in learning a subject or a language. 2. The aims of language teaching learning are given under two broad categories (i) General Aim which contains (a) , Semantic aspect, (understanding meaning) (b) Phonetic aspect (spelling and pronunciation), (c) graphic aspect (written form), and (d) the phonetic-cum-graphic aspect (reading ). The second aim of teaching-learning English is ‘each lesson should have specific aim.’ What the specific aim is remains unclear. The aim in reality is ‘proceed from known to unknown’ ‘from concrete to abstract.’ The procedure or method is presented as specific aim. 3. Overall objectives all stages of schooling are presented in seven points, which are further categorized into LSRW, each having a separate set of objectives. The over all objectives expect the learner to understand simple spoken and written English and to read silently, read poems, use dictionaries, etc. ‘The basic skills of teaching and learning English’ as the syllabus postulates are LSRW, expecting the textbook and classroom to give ample time for listening and speaking among the four skills at the primary stage. However, it also lays emphasis on reading and writing at later stage. The syllabus delineates again general objectives for each class at the primary level. These are divided into (i) aural –oral skill (ii) reading skill and (iii) writing skill. Objectives of each skill are presented in terms of what the learner is excepted to do 4. Syllabus of Nagaland does not have any information about the teaching –learning materials, evaluation procedures, methods and strategies for the classroom activities and so on. An interesting statement to be noted in the analysis of the NCERT[3] syllabus in comparison with the state is, “Nagaland is little more advanced when compared to the one given in the National Curriculum Framework – 2005, ‘as the pupils have already had two years of learning the said language before coming to level 1”
4. 4. Manipur

Syllabus of the state of Manipur consists of general objectives of teaching / learning English for each stage and expected learning outcomes for each class in terms of four skills – LSRW. It also prescribes vocabulary limit for each class and “the list”, as the syllabus says, has been prepared by CIEFL, Hyderabad.

a. The general objectives are more or less in line with NCERT’s guidelines. The expected outcomes detail each activity the child is expected to do in the classroom. The activities are listed under LSRW.

b. The number of words to be learnt by each child in a particular class is mentioned as follows class one 100, class two 250 -300, class three 450 - 500 class four 750 – 800, and class five 800 – 1000. This is an obsolete idea as one cannot say how many words one knows at a particular point of time. This shows that the syllabus is following the structural approach.

c. Syllabus at the higher secondary level provides examination specifications i.e. allotment of marks and expected numbers of words for each answer. The blue print of the question paper with its various components is given in detail. Knowledge, Understanding, Application and Skill are the four components that would be tested. The specifications do not even distinguish between language and other ‘content’ subjects. Aesthetic appreciation has been left out completely. The question paper specifications also categorize questions into difficult, average and easy with specific allotment of marks to each category.

d. The analysis of topics / titles of the lessons in each textbook found that the topics and themes are not in line with NCERT’s guidelines. Items that would be deleted and themes on which new lessons need to be added are listed.

4. 5. Madhya Pradesh

The state has brought out State Curriculum Framework 2007, (by Madhya Pradesh Rajya Shiksha Kendra, Bhopal). The curriculum Framework spells out the rationale for the curricular revision and the need to cater to the changing societal needs and the diverse cultural, linguistics and social background. The framework prescribes / recommends a two level approach (this is the existing system in the state) – General English and Special English – Special English is an optional subject designed specifically for those who plan to acquire higher linguistic and literary proficiency and take up English as a the medium of instruction while the general English is opted by others i.e. those who study in vernacular medium schools. The framework is cautious when it defines ‘General English’ is by no means lessens the quality of inputs given to the learner and the ‘general English’ has all the ingredients included in ‘English’ as discussed in the NCF – 2005.

The Framework – 2007 aims at equipping all children with high level of proficiency in English so that they do not suffer discrimination for lack of it. Advocating an integrated approach to teaching of the language to promote a holistic perspective, the framework calls for need based syllabus and proficient teachers to synchronize with national and international standards. The framework presents the overall objectives of English language education (ELE) in terms of skills to be fostered, development of desirable attitude, methods and techniques to be adopted for an effective implementation in the classroom, curricular package (materials), evaluation methods, time allocation and training of teachers. The specific objectives for each class / stage are spelt out separately for both general and special English.

a. Assumption about language learning

The curriculum framework – 2007 (Madhya Pradesh) calls for equity in the access to English language education at school level as they would, it believes, suffer the discrimination for lack of it. The framework also advocates the equality of languages and complementary role of languages (they (languages) flourish in each other’s company).

The framework believes that language learning takes place implicitly by comprehending and communicating messages, either through listening or reading for meaning. Different language skills develop simultaneously rather than in a linear order as reflected in the traditional LSRW (page 5). An integrated approach would enable learners to receive meaningful language input that is appropriate to his / her age, acquire basic interpersonal communicative skills and move on to cognitively advanced language proficiency. Language acquisition follows, as the framework believes, processes of scientific enquiry such as observation of data, classification and categorization, hypothesis formation and verification

b. Skills to be fostered & attitudes to be nurtured

The framework presents the overall objectives of English language education in schools in terms of receptive skill (listening and reading) expressive skills (speaking and Writing). The ‘desirable attitudes’ to be nurtured include: The ten core components identified in the NPE - 1986, along with emerging concerns like environmental issues, conservation of resources, population concerns, disaster management, human rights, etc.

The framework emphasizes for enabling learners to engage in discussion in an analytical and critical manner, use language creatively and imaginatively in text transaction and performance of activities.

c. Contents of the Course

The framework suggests (under desirable attitudes to be nurtured) the lists of themes for development of materials. These include the emerging concerns and ten core components and the following:

Self, family, home, friends and pets; Neighbourhood, community, surrounding; Madhya Pradesh – its cultural, religious diversity; India –cultural, religious, linguistics diversities and heritage; Patriotism, national heroes and freedom fighters; Duties and rights; Adventure and imagination; Sports; Science and technology; Peace and harmony; Travel and tourism; Art and culture

d. Methods and techniques

The framework suggests oral-aural, learner-centered, activity-based approach. The activities include: project work, activities that promote reading with comprehension, quiz, role-play, skits, dialogue, dramatization, discussion, debate, language games, simulating, real life situation, using newspaper clipping, riddles and puzzles, pair work and group work.

e. Curricular Package

Each class will have a (i) textbook, (ii) a workbook and (iii) a teacher’s book. The curricular framework – 2007 (M.P.) also prescribes number of units for each stage. In general English for classes I – V, the textbook will have 10 to 14 units including 3 or 4 poems of varying length. Each workbook will have the same number of corresponding worksheets as number of comprehensive units of the textbook.

f. Evaluation

The framework calls for the implementation for newer trends in evaluation techniques. A continuous ands comprehensive model is suggested. Time allocation: The framework suggests at least one period a day for the teaching of English in each class.

The curricular frame work of M.P. strongly recommends compulsory training of all teachers employing the cascade mode with in a year. Since English language has been introduced from class I, it is felt that the training of teaching both on the “content’ and methodology is advocated.

5. Discussion

The syllabi of the states analysed above inform us how language learning is understood; the basic conditions for learning a language as a second or foreign language aimed at and the essential of a good language learning-teaching in a situation like the rural Indian settings. The essentials may be listed as (i) Proficient language teacher (ii) amount of exposure of students to the language (iii) Motivation of children (iv) materials that would provide opportunities for the learner and teacher to act and react and move beyond the texts. Though the picture is alarming that the language is taken as a content subject, some states have got themselves informed of the recent development at the national level, like the NCF -2005 and made an attempt at least to bring in the ideas.

The syllabus of Andhra Pradesh does not make an attempt to understand what is language learning i.e. assumptions about language learning. The syllabus reflects (i) attainment of basic proficiency, and (ii) the development of language as an instrument for basic interpersonal communication and later for abstract thought. It does not talk about the learner, nature of learning, language and learning. The place and status of English language is touched formally. The syllabus draws learning upon NCF – 2005.

The syllabus moves from learning orally to written i.e. speaking to writing at the primary stage, but is not clear about when to begin writing the alphabets of English. Objectives attempt to bring in many things at the same time. We can notice it in the primary, and in upper primary stages. Though the syllabus advocates multiple methods for teaching / learning the language, it appears that it relies heavily on ‘good old’ structural approach in the primary classes. The number of structures to be taught / learnt is listed in the detailed syllabus.

The new (proposed) syllabus of the state of Mizoram does not take a holistic view of language learning and the learner’s role in learning as central. Much emphasis is laid on grammar teaching even in classes I and II. Outcome based objectives are delineated to ensure that everything is taught and learnt. Though the syllabus talks about linking life outside the classroom with learning in the classroom, it does not say much about local life and culture as contents for the textbook

The themes the syllabus has identified are the themes listed in the NCERT syllabus. It makes an attempt to go beyond these themes and let the textbook developer feel free to choose the themes suiting the locale. Issues like gender, peace, health and physical education and work related attitudes are listed in the themes. One needs to look at the textbooks to find out whether these find a place in them and whether the themes are dealt with adequately.
The syllabus of the state of Nagaland defines aims of teaching-learning of English in vague manner listing as general and specific aims and the objectives in terms of LSRW. It would be difficult for teachers’ to understand the syllabus, if at all it reaches them. If it does, they will be let to believe that language has been presented in all its aspects (a), Semantic aspect, (understanding meaning) (b) Phonetic aspect (spelling and pronunciation), (c) graphic aspect (written form), and (d) the phonetic-cum-graphic aspect (reading) without touching upon any underlying principles of language acquisition or learning. For example ‘graphic aspect’ (written form) can actually refer to recognizing the mechanics of writing the alphabets, words, sentences, paragraphs, leaving any reference to meaning. We recognize learning as meaning making. The aims of Nagaland syllabus do not corroborate this aspect learning.

Manipur, in her attempt to define the aims and objectives of English language education loses its track when it prescribes vocabulary lists to each class. The vocabulary list, which the state claims that has been prepared by CIEFL, (as far as our knowledge goes CIEFL never prepared such a list) is obsolete and outdated.

Madhya Pradesh presents an encouraging picture on many counts. It adopts a holistic approach to language learning and teaching in the context of the learner. Adopting the ideas from the NCF, the syllabi delineates the over all aim and skills to be fostered during the school stage. The syllabus recommends two types of courses –one, general English and the other, special English. One can see the divide that the first course is for native /vernacular medium learners and the special English is for those who study in English medium schools. Though the curriculum framework argues that no course is by no means lesser, it does not require great intelligence to understand the motive.

5.1. English language input / exposure

Language learning, whatever way it occurs in a naturalistic or in an instructed context, takes time and laborious process (Rod Ellis 1993 & 2008). Learners need to receive exposure to the target language. The language input (comprehensible input) and motivation (Krashen 1985) are essential for learning a language as second or foreign language. The intended curriculum and syllabi of the states analysed above, though attempt to provide a comprehensible package of text material as a major input, are not clear on how and why the learners would be exposed and the teachers’ language proficiency acts as a major input in the classroom. They do not talk about development of reading; strategies for reading (like story telling, story reading, etc.) and integrated approach to learning the language are not clearly understood. The enabling conditions for learning the language as second or foreign language are not even talked about. In other words, the syllabi do not make attempt to understand the contexts of the learners, how learning takes place in the contexts, while tall statements are made in recognizing the language (English) as a language for access to higher education and employability.

5.2. Interactive / Communicative Activities /Tasks

There is lot of confusion in understanding what an activity or a task is in language classroom. The activity / task needs to let the learner use the language, i.e. get engaged with the language. This requires learner initiating, turn taking, suggesting, debating, etc. the syllabi and a cursory look at textbooks shows that the activities are teacher directed and teacher centered. The syllabus does not visualize (except cursorily in the objectives) how activities in the classroom can be organized and what roles learners and teachers have in the classroom. We can notice the paradox of the syllabus aiming to design communicational syllabi and doing the opposite of the same. This is noticed in all the five states syllabi analysed.

5.3. Teaching – learning of Vocabulary

Vocabulary list still dominates syllabi of Manipur as it prescribes number of words to be learnt in each class. This obsolete idea of teaching the number of words in each class reveals that the understanding the syllabi framers have and the latest knowledge on language learning. In fact the list as mentioned in the syllabi prepared by CIEFL does not exist. Other states’ syllabi too do not throw any light on vocabulary –whether lexical approach would be followed or vocabulary would be learnt in contexts.

5.4.Teaching of Grammar

Every one seems to be bothered about teaching of grammar and the rules of language explicitly from the earliest. Most of the states list the grammatical item to be covered in each class and thereby completing the whole grammar of English language by the end of class X. What is worrying is that the idea of teaching of grammar in an isolated manner through single sentence examples and telling the rules followed by example. The PPP (present-practice-proceduralized i.e. automatized) (Rod Ellis) model is aimed at teaching grammar. PPP is against the zero grammar(meaning centered) approach- the idea that a grammatical structure should be first presented explicitly and then practiced until it is fully proceduralised (i.e. automatized). (emphasis original) (Rod Ellis 2008) We recognise learner as constructor of knowledge through his / her engagements with the language and encounters, the learner discovers the rules of language. Contrary to the beliefs of constructivism, the syllabi aim to teach grammar explicitly, though attempts are made to contextualise the ‘grammar’ worksheet / exercises in the workbook with corresponding units/ lessons of the textbook.

5.6. Curricular package

Each state analysed here suggests teaching-learning material for each stage. Rightly all recommend only one book for primary stage. Three textbooks are prescribed from class six onward. They are: a textbook (the main reader), supplementary reader and a workbook. Some states prescribe number of units to be included for each class, number of poem and grammatical item. The textbook is aimed at providing comprehensible inputs (Krashen 1985) and the in put needs to authentic i.e. texts which are written not for the purpose of textbook, but written for some other purpose like stories, novels, travelogue, autobiography, etc. The curricular statements on materials do not talk about the authenticity of texts, texts that would provide opportunity to exploit the maximum learning, variety of genres, and translation from Indian languages. The workbook aimed to teach grammar items explicitly need to be introspected further as the recent trends advocate learning-teaching of grammar in context rooting it in the texts of the main textbook, thus connecting it with the experiences of learners.

5.7. Extensive Reading

All the five syllabi in their design for materials or curricular package include a supplementary reader (from class VI) aiming at promotion of reading as a major input for learning the language. The syllabi fail to recognize the distinction between the intensive reading and extensive reading. It appears that the supplementary readers for extensive reading are aimed at for intensive reading as that of a detailed reading text. So the examination specifications suggest testing of the supplementary reader as that of the detailed text. Moreover, the syllabi do not envisage promotion of reading taking the benefit of learner’s first language / mother tongue and through story telling, story reading and creating locally available resources like class library and reading as a continuous strategy for learning the language.

5.8. Examination

Though much water has flowed through the processes of curricular reform both at the national and state levels, not much progress has been felt in the syllabi of the states in evaluation. Every syllabus talks about continuous and comprehensive evaluation, but it the one time final examination that decides what has been learnt and there has been regret about listening and speaking not tested. The syllabi designers find themselves in a fix when it comes to the two important skills of language learning, i.e. listening and speaking. It is only the written examination that decides all aspects of learning the language. Since there is not much scope for ‘teaching’ listening and speaking beyond the textbooks, the skills suffer in the tested curriculum too.

6. To Conclude

Addressing the Rural learner’s needs:

If the teaching-learning situation is to be made rural learner centered, the curriculum in language education needs to:

1. Have a holistic approach to language planning where language education is perceived as whole in which English language education find its complementary and supplementary role. 2. Use the languages of children as a resource for teaching-learning of languages and other content subjects (NCF -2005). Adopting the multilingualism as strategy for learning of languages and other subjects will help the rural learner finding their contexts and connecting their life outside the school with happenings of the classroom. 3. Create (English) language environment in the classroom and attempt to enable the learner to explore finding the language in use outside the classroom. This requires bilingual proficient teachers, who are conformable in the mother tongue(s) of children and in English. The activities and assignments that would demand children to move beyond the textbook and the classroom in finding to use the language. Newspapers, radio, TV and computers could be exploited for the purpose.

1. Let us have, what David Graddol (1997) calls in his The Future of English, an ethical framework for ELT in which he brings in the questions of (a) How then, can the teaching of English be brought with in a more ethnical framework? (b) What social responsibilities are associated with the promotion and teaching of English? And there is a growing concern about endangered languages but very little debate about the management of large languages, of which English is the largest. (P63). The languages of children, more the languages in our tribal locales as also languages spoken by less number of people would find a comfortable position in the school curriculum.
English will continue to dominate the school curriculum not only as a language, but as a medium of learning too. Given the important roles to English in education and in the larger society (Tickoo 1996), this will have greater implications for language education, particularly English language education in rural settings. The anti-English spirit or English hatred is dying out and will slowly diminish in coming years as the language is perceived as language of hope and better life. While some of our native languages are loosing their battle for survival where English is taking the ‘killer’ role and the curricular documents calling for collaborative bi-/multilingualism, what in reality felt is subtractive bilingualism. This dangerous trend may lead to mass conversion to English medium instruction in our schools, both urban and rural schools. We must ensure that English as a language in education is fully realised in terms of the basic conditions for learning the language and those educated through native medium schools attain the proficiency that would not hamper them to move forward to higher education and employment any other urban English medium educated child would compete. Much discussed Common School System needs to be taken seriously along with right to education to realise a comprehensive language-in education strategy that would keep our rural learners comfortable.

References

Board of Secondary Education, Mizoram. (2005) Syllabus

Board of Secondary Education, Manipur (2004) Syllabus.

Clark, John L. (1987) Curriculum Renewal in School Foreign Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cummins and Swain. (1986) Bilingualism in Education. Longman. London

Cunningworth, A (1995) Choosing Your Course book. Heinemann

Crystal, David. (1997) English as a Global Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University press.

Graddal, David. (1997) The Future of English? A guide to forecasting the popularity of the English language in the 21st century. The British Council: London.

Ellis, Rod (1993) Talking shop: Second language acquisition research: how does it help teacher? An interview with Rod Ellis. ELT Journal Vol. 47/1 Jan. 1993

Ellis R. (1992). Second language Acquisition and Language Pedagogy. Multilingual Matters.

Ellis R. (1994) ‘Empirical Evaluation of Language Teaching Materials’ ELT Journal. Vol. 47/5 Jan. 1994

Govt. of Andhra Presesh (2005). Syllabus for English

GOI. (2007). Report of the National Knowledge Commission, New Delhi, India

GOI. (1971). Census of India. New Delhi

Krashen, S. (1985) The Input Hypothesis. Pergamon Press, Oxford: Oxford University Press

Krashen, S. (1985) Second Language Acquisition Oxford: Oxford University Press

Kurrien, John (1997) Notes for the Meeting of the National Focus Group on Teaching of English, and Notes on Introduction of English as the primary stage, Ms. NFG. English-Position Paper on Teaching of English (India)

Gardner, R.C. and Lambert, W.E. (1972) Attitudes and Motivation in Second Language Learning. Rowley Massachusetts: Newbury House Publishers.

Mathew, Rama. (1997). Final Report (a summary): CBSE-ELT Curriculum Implementation Study. CIEFL, Hyderabad: Department of Evaluation.

Nag-Arulmani, S. (2005). Language attainments and learning opportunities: Pointers for a new curriculum framework. Ms. NFG-English.

Madhya Pradesh Rajya Shiksha Kendra 2007 State Curriculum Framework. Bhopal

Pattanayak, D. P (year not mentioned) Language Policy and Programmes. GOI. Language, Ministry of Education and Youth Services.

Pattanayak, D.P. (1981). Multilingualism and Mother-tongue Education. Oxford University Press.

Pattanayak, D.P. (1986). Study of Languages. A Report. New Delhi NCERT (unpublished)

NCERT. 2005. National Curriculum Framework – 2005. New Delhi India

NCERT. (2005) National Focus Group Position Paper on Teaching of English. New Delhi, India.

NCERT. (2005) National Focus Group Position Paper on Teaching of Indian Languages. New Delhi, India.

NCERT. (2007) Seventh All India School Education Survey. New Delhi

NCERT. (1993) Sixth All India School Education Survey. New Delhi

Prabhu, N.S. (1987) Second Language Pedagogy. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

Ramasamy 2001 Mother Tongue and Medium of Instruction- A Continuing Battle in India. Language in India Vol: 1:6 October 2001 www.languageinIndia

Sharma, J.C. Multilingualism in India. Language in India. Vol: 1:6 October 2001www.languageinIndia

Srinivasa, Rao. (2008). India’s Language Debates and Education of Linguistic Minorities. Economic and Political Weekly. September 6, 2008.

Tickoo, M.L. (1996) English in Asian Bilingual Education: From Hatred to Harmony Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development Vol. 17, Nos. 2-4, 1996

UNESCO (2003) Education in a multilingual world. UNESCO Education Position Paper. Paris

[1] The Three Language Formula as stated in the 1968 policy:

· The first language to be studied must be the mother tongue or the regional language

· The second language

o In Hindi speaking states, the second language will be some other modern Indian language or English and

o In non-Hindi speaking sates, the second language will be Hindi or English

· The third language

o In Hindi speaking states, the third language will be English or a modern Indian language not studied as the second language.

[2] The Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) devised a formula known as the Three Language Formula which was simplified and approved by Conference of Chief Ministers held in 1961.

[3] National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) is a national level advisory body on school education. It advises the governments at the national and state (provinces) level on all matters of school education. It activities include development of National Curriculum Framework, model syllabi and textbook from classes I to XII.

Status of English at Global Level

nternational English is the concept of the English language as a global means of communication in numerous dialects, and also the movement towards an international standard for the language. It is also referred to as Global English,[1] World English, Common English, Continental English, General English, Engas (English as associate language), or Globish.[2] Sometimes, these terms refer simply to the array of varieties of English spoken throughout the world.

Sometimes, "international English" and the related terms above refer to a desired standardisation, i.e. Standard English; however, there is no consensus on the path to this goal. There have been many proposals for making International English more accessible to people from different nationalities. Basic English is an example, but it failed to make progress. More recently, there have been proposals for English as a lingua franca (ELF). It has also been argued that International English is held back by its traditional spelling. There has been slow progress in adopting alternate spellings.

The modern concept of International English does not exist in isolation, but is the product of centuries of development of the English language.

The English language evolved in England, from a set of West Germanic dialects spoken by the Angles and Saxons, who arrived from continental Europe in the 5th century. Those dialects came to be known as Englisc (literally "Anglish"), the language today referred to as Anglo-Saxon or Old English (the language of the poem Beowulf). English is thus more closely related to West Frisian than to any other modern language, although less than a quarter of the vocabulary of Modern English is shared with West Frisian or other West Germanic languages because of extensive borrowings from Norse, Norman, Latin, and other languages. It was during the Viking invasions of the Anglo-Saxon period that Old English was influenced by contact with Norse, a group of North Germanic dialects spoken by the Vikings, who came to control a large region in the North of England known as the Danelaw. Vocabulary items entering English from Norse (including the pronouns they, and them) are thus attributable to the on-again-off-again Viking occupation of Northern England during the centuries prior to the Norman Conquest (see, e.g., Canute the Great). Soon after the Norman Conquest of 1066, the Englisc language ceased being a literary language (see, e.g., Ormulum) and was replaced by Anglo-Norman as the written language of England. During the Norman Period, English absorbed a significant component of French vocabulary (approximately one-third of the vocabulary of Modern English). With this new vocabulary, additional vocabulary borrowed from Latin (with Greek, another approximately one-third of Modern English vocabulary, though some borrowings from Latin and Greek date from later periods), a simplified grammar, and use of the orthographic conventions of French instead of Old English orthography, the language became Middle English (the language of Chaucer). The "difficulty" of English as a written language thus began in the High Middle Ages, when French orthographic conventions were used to spell a language whose original, more suitable orthography had been forgotten after centuries of nonuse. During the late medieval period, King Henry V of England (lived 1387-1422) ordered the use of the English of his day in proceedings before him and before the government bureaucracies. That led to the development of Chancery English, a standardised form used in the government bureaucracy. (The use of so-called Law French in English courts continued through the Renaissance, however.)

The emergence of English as a language of Wales results from the incorporation of Wales into England and also dates from approximately this time period. Soon afterward, the development of printing by Caxton and others accelerated the development of a standardised form of English. Following a change in vowel pronunciation that marks the transition of English from the medieval to the Renaissance period, the language of the Chancery and Caxton became Early Modern English (the language of Shakespeare 's day) and with relatively moderate changes eventually developed into the English language of today. Scots, as spoken in the lowlands and along the east coast of Scotland, developed independently from Modern English and is based on the Northern dialects of Anglo-Saxon, particularly Northumbrian, which also serve as the basis of Northern English dialects such as those of Yorkshire and Newcastle upon Tyne. Northumbria was within the Danelaw and therefore experienced greater influence from Norse than did the Southern dialects. As the political influence of London grew, the Chancery version of the language developed into a written standard across Great Britain, further progressing in the modern period as Scotland became united with England as a result of the Acts of Union of 1707.

There have been two introductions of English to Ireland, a medieval introduction that led to the development of the now-extinct Yola dialect and a modern introduction in which Hibernian English largely replaced Irish as the most widely spoken language during the 19th century, following the Act of Union of 1800. Received Pronunciation (RP) is generally viewed as a 19th century development and is not reflected in North American English dialects, which are based on 18th century English.

The establishment of the first permanent English-speaking colony in North America in 1607 was a major step towards the globalisation of the language. British English was only partially standardised when the American colonies were established. Isolated from each other by the Atlantic Ocean, the dialects in England and the colonies began evolving independently.

The settlement of Australia in 1788 brought the English language to Oceania. By the 19th century, the standardisation of British English was more settled than it had been in the previous century, and this relatively well-established English was brought to Africa, Asia and New Zealand. It developed both as the language of English-speaking settlers from Britain and Ireland, and as the administrative language imposed on speakers of other languages in the various parts of the British Empire. The first form can be seen in New Zealand English, and the latter in Indian English. In Europe, English received a more central role particularly since 1919, when the Treaty of Versailles was composed not only in French, the common language of diplomacy at the time, but, under special request from American president Woodrow Wilson, also in English - a major milestone in the globalisation of English.

The English-speaking regions of Canada and the Caribbean are caught between historical connections with the UK and the Commonwealth, and geographical and economic connections with the U.S. In some things, and more formally, they tend to follow British standards, whereas in others, especially commercial, they follow the U.S. standard.

[edit]English as a global language

See also: World Englishes

Braj Kachru divides the use of English into three concentric circles.

The inner circle is the traditional base of English and includes countries such as the United Kingdom and Ireland and the anglophone populations of the former British colonies of the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa,Canada, and various islands of the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean.

In the outer circle are those countries where English has official or historical importance ("special significance"). This includes most of the countries of the Commonwealth of Nations (the former British Empire), including populous countries such as India, Pakistan and Nigeria; and others, such as the Philippines, under the sphere of influence of English-speaking countries. Here English may serve as a useful lingua franca between ethnic and language groups.Higher education, the legislature and judiciary, national commerce, and so on, may all be carried out predominantly in English.

The expanding circle refers to those countries where English has no official role, but is nonetheless important for certain functions, notably international business. By the twenty-first century, the number of non-native English speakers has come to significantly outnumber the number of native speakers by a factor of three, according to the British Council.[3] Darius Degher, a professor at Malmö University in Sweden, uses the term decentered English to describe this shift, along with attendant changes in what is considered to be important to English users and learners.

Research on English as a lingua franca in the sense of "English in the Expanding Circle" is comparatively recent. Linguists who have been active in this field are Jennifer Jenkins, Barbara Seidlhofer, Christiane Meierkord and Joachim Grzega.

[edit]English as a lingua franca in foreign language teaching

See also: English as a foreign or second language

English as an additional language (EAL) is usually based on the standards of either American English or British English as well as incorporating foreign terms. English as an international language (EIL) is EAL with emphasis on learning different major dialect forms; in particular, it aims to equip students with the linguistic tools to communicate internationally.[citation needed] Roger Nunn considers different types of competence in relation to the teaching of English as an International Language, arguing that linguistic competence has yet to be adequately addressed in recent considerations of EIL.[4]

Several models of "simplified English" have been suggested for teaching English as a foreign language:

▪ Basic English, developed by Charles Kay Ogden (and later also I. A. Richards) in the 1930s; a recent revival has been initiated by Bill Templer ▪ Threshold Level English, developed by van Ek and Alexander ▪ Globish, developed by Jean-Paul Nerrière ▪ Basic Global English, developed by Joachim Grzega
Furthermore, Randolph Quirk and Gabriele Stein thought about a Nuclear English, which, however, has never been fully developed.

With reference to the term "Globish", Robert McCrum has used this to mean "English as global language". Jean-Paul Nerriere uses it for a constructed language.

[edit]Varying concepts

[edit]Universality and flexibility
International English sometimes refers to English as it is actually being used and developed in the world; as a language owned not just by native speakers, but by all those who come to use it.

Basically, it covers the English language at large, often (but not always or necessarily) implicitly seen as standard. It is certainly also commonly used in connection with the acquisition, use, and study of English as the world 's lingua franca ( 'TEIL: Teaching English as an International Language '), and especially when the language is considered as a whole in contrast with British English, American English, South African English, and the like. — McArthur (2002, p. 444–445)

It especially means English words and phrases generally understood throughout the English-speaking world as opposed to localisms. The importance of non-native English language skills can be recognised behind the long-standing joke that the international language of science and technology is broken English.

[edit]Neutrality
International English reaches towards cultural neutrality. This has a practical use:

"What could be better than a type of English that saves you from having to re-edit publications for individual regional markets! Teachers and learners of English as a second language also find it an attractive idea — both often concerned that their English should be neutral, without American or British or Canadian or Australian coloring. Any regional variety of English has a set of political, social and cultural connotations attached to it, even the so-called 'standard ' forms." — Peters (2004, International English)

According to this viewpoint, International English is a concept of English that minimises the aspects defined by either the colonial imperialism of Victorian Britain or the so-called "cultural imperialism" of the 20th century United States. While British colonialism laid the foundation for English over much of the world, International English is a product of an emerging world culture, very much attributable to the influence of the United States as well, but conceptually based on a far greater degree of cross-talk and linguistic transculturation, which tends to mitigate both U.S. influence and British colonial influence.

The development of International English often centres on academic and scientific communities, where formal English usage is prevalent, and creative use of the language is at a minimum. This formal International English allows entry into Western culture as a whole and Western cultural values in general.

[edit]Opposition
The continued growth of the English language itself is seen by many[who?] as a kind of cultural imperialism, whether it is English in one form or English in two slightly different forms.

Robert Phillipson argues against the possibility of such neutrality in his Linguistic Imperialism (1992).[clarification needed] Learners who wish to use purportedly correct English are in fact faced with the dual standard of American English and British English, and other less known standard Englishes (including Australian, Scottish and Canadian).

Edward Trimnell, author of Why You Need a Foreign Language & How to Learn One (2005) argues that the international version of English is only adequate for communicating basic ideas. For complex discussions and business/technical situations, English is not an adequate communication tool for non-native speakers of the language. Trimnell also asserts that native English-speakers have become "dependent on the language skills of others" by placing their faith in international English.

[edit]Appropriation theory
There are also some who reject both linguistic imperialism and David Crystal 's theory of the neutrality of English. They argue that the phenomenon of the global spread of English is better understood in the framework of appropriation (e.g. Spichtinger 2000), that is, English used for local purposes around the world. Demonstrators in non-English speaking countries often use signs in English to convey their demands to TV-audiences around the globe, for instance.

In English-language teaching Bobda shows how Cameroon has moved away from a mono-cultural, Anglo-centered way of teaching English and has gradually appropriated teaching material to a Cameroonian context. Non Western-topics treated are, for instance, the rule of Emirs, traditional medicine or polygamy (1997:225). Kramsch and Sullivan (1996) describe how Western methodology and textbooks have been appropriated to suit local Vietnamese culture. ThePakistani textbook "Primary Stage English" includes lessons such as "Pakistan My Country", "Our Flag", or "Our Great Leader" (Malik 1993: 5,6,7) which might well sound jingoistic to Western ears. Within the native culture, however, establishing a connection between English Language Teaching (ELT), patriotism and Muslim faith is seen as one of the aims of ELT, as the chairman of the Punjab Textbook Board openly states: "The board ... takes care, through these books to inoculate in the students a love of the Islamic values and awareness to guard the ideological frontiers of your [the students] home lands" (Punjab Text Book Board 1997).

[edit]Many Englishes
There are many difficult choices that have to be made if there is to be further standardisation of English in the future. These include the choice over whether to adopt a current standard, or move towards a more neutral, but artificial one. A true International English might supplant both current American and British English as a variety of English for international communication, leaving these as local dialects, or would rise from a merger of General American and standard British English with admixture of other varieties of English and would generally replace all these varieties of English.

We may, in due course, all need to be in control of two standard Englishes—the one which gives us our national and local identity, and the other which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race. In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in our own language. — David Crystal (1988: p. 265)

This is the situation long faced by many users of English who possess a "non-standard" dialect of English as their birth tongue but have also learned to write (and perhaps also speak) a more standard dialect. Many academics often publish material in journals requiring different varieties of English and change style and spellings as necessary without great difficulty.

As far as spelling is concerned, the differences between American and British usage became noticeable due to the first influential lexicographers (dictionary writers) on each side of the Atlantic. Samuel Johnson 's dictionary of 1755 greatly favoured Norman-influenced spellings such as centre and colour; on the other hand, Noah Webster 's first guide to American spelling, published in 1783, preferred spellings like center and the Latinate color. The difference in strategy and philosophy of Johnson and Webster are largely responsible for the main division in English spelling that exists today. However, these differences are extremely minor. Spelling is but a small part of the differences betweendialects of English, and may not even reflect dialect differences at all (except in phonetically spelled dialogue). International English refers to much more than an agreed spelling pattern.

[edit]Dual standard
Two approaches to International English are the individualistic and inclusive approach and the new dialect approach.

The individualistic approach gives control to individual authors to write and spell as they wish (within purported standard conventions) and to accept the validity of differences. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English, published in 1999, is a descriptive study of both American and British English in which each chapter follows individual spelling conventions according to the preference of the main editor of that chapter.

The new dialect approach appears in The Cambridge Guide to English Usage (Peters, 2004) which attempts to avoid any language bias and accordingly uses an idiosyncratic international spelling system of mixed American and British forms (but tending to prefer the American English spellings).

English and its Dominance in various fields of activity

Dominance of English in the Global market and the First

Generation Learners (FGL)

Bhatt Vinod and Joshi Dipti

Amity University, Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, INDIA

Available online at: www.isca.in

Received 19

th

July 2012, revised 4

th

August 2012, accepted 16

th

August 2012

Abstract

The significance of English cannot be denied in the present scenario. It has emerged as the most widely used language of

the world. Almost all the scientific studies in most of the universities of the world are carried out in English medium. It not

only helps us to be updated with the recent developments around the world but also plays an important role in the

enhancement of our personality. Fluency in English language is a must for getting jobs in multinational companies. EIL

(English as International Language) is dramatically challenging the ELT profession and further research can help

practitioners better appreciate the contribution of EIL to language teaching and intercultural communication all over the

world.

1

With the emergence of new age economies like the software development and call centers the significance of the

language has increased further. In order to sustain oneself and find a livelihood a good knowledge of English is

compulsory. The dominance of English therefore becomes significant to the first generation learners. This influence of

English can be seen in all the engineering and professional colleges who have made the learning of English mandatory for

all the students. This paper is an attempt to illustrate the dominance of English language for the first generation learners.

Keyword: First generation and the dominance of English.

Introduction

English has emerged as the international language of business

and communication, particularly in certain fields such as travel,

hospitality, engineering, construction, healthcare, finance,

shipping etc. It is the most widely used language of the world.

Many of the world’s largest stock exchanges are based in

English speaking countries. English has become the key

language for banking, investment and foreign exchange. Almost

all the universities of the world are conducting scientific studies

through English medium. Due to the widespread demand of the

language many English medium schools have been set up which

impart education only in English. The most important criteria for

selection in a reputed institution or organization is the

knowledge of English. It is necessary for economic and social

advancement in India. No medical, science or technical journals

are published in any of the other Indian languages. The medical

companies write the names of the medicines in English. The

Indian lawyers too draft a petition in English. Thus, English

enjoys prime importance in India even though it is not read or

spoken by the majority of Indians. All in all, we could argue that

English plays the same role in multinational corporations as the

mother tongue does in domestically operating companies or

other monolingual work environments: it is used to get the job

done

2

.

Historical Overview: Journey of English to India: Language

is the most organized and manifested form of thought, speech,

communication and intelligence. In other words it is the most

mysterious creations of nature. Let us have a look at the journey

of English language in India. India, primarily known as Sone Ki

Chidia (in Hindi) was a prosperous country is it culture, heritage,

economic and social condition. Then, in 1498 Vasko D Gama

invaded Calicut and restored a link between Europe and the East.

India was considered as a land of “spices and marvels” to the

Europeans. The newly explored route turned out to be a boon to

the English who wanted to trade in India and gradually

occupied the land and established the East India Company. This,

led to the fusion of two different cultures, languages etc. Indians

got attracted to the west because they were far ahead in various

fields. With the rule of Britishers the language also ruled.

Necessity of English language: Till recently, English was just a

foreign language but now it has become the international

language. In order to get prestigious job knowledge of English is

a must. We ourselves have adopted English language and it is

slowly spreading in urban or remote areas through television,

mobile phones or word of mouth. We do not realize that we are

amalgamating English words into Hindi sentences or Hindi

words into English sentences. English has emerged as lingua

franca and now there is no escape from it. Our social

transformation is already in process, and the credit undoubtedly

goes to English language. The spread of technology has further

made the use of the language inevitable. Thus, it would be wiser

to adopt the language and March forward to lead a successful

life.

Globalization in the Context of English Language with the

Reference to Indian Culture: Globalization in India is due to

the impact of the western contacts. During the 19

th

century India International Research Journal of Social Sciences_________________________________________________ I Res. J. Social Sci.

Vol. 1(1), 35-38, September (2012)

International Science Congress Association 36

was influenced by the European ideologies and belief, namely,

the principles of equality and freedom, and the knowledge

based on reason. The Indian society was disorganized, people

were divided amongst themselves, false pride and superstition

was prevalent in the society. A modern outlook was therefore

required to transform the traditional values of religion, faith,

etc., to secularism, and equal rights. This change was further

induced by information and technological revolution, which

paved way for indirect domination. Globalization in the context

of English Language with the reference to Indian Culture:

Globalisation is an influencing force everywhere in the world.

It makes us more aware that, along with the prescriptive slogan

‘think globally, act locally’, there must, as so aptly put by

Hogan, be the additional critical observation that we also ‘think

locally, act globally

3

.

Indian culture is the soil in which we are born, the material

which has shaped the very foundation of our body life and

mind. It seems at the moment that we stand facing turmoil at

the cross roads of the history where we shall be asked either to

fight against westernization or else to get up rise to the greater

task of discovering reconciliation that shall transform us into a

magical symphony beckoning us to a golden future for the

mother earth. Looking at the need of an hour we cannot deny

the fact that our social transformations can take place through

English language and it is indeed very important for social and

economical advancement of the first generation learners. They

should be educated so that they can read write and speak

English language not only for their own growth but for the

growth and the development of the nation. We can no more

live in ignorance, we have to come forward and take concrete

steps so that first generation learners can get an exposure in

these challenging times of globalization.

We can not divide our nation into English and non English

groups. To make nation one, to spread nationalism we should

come forward and do something for the first generation

learners so that they can also become part of the main stream.

We need to transform and equip our first generation learners

with necessary contemporary skills to make them secure and to

be able to face successfully the challenges of time. English has

come as a little candle that can show us some light in the

darkness of the night.

Problems and Solutions: How First Generation Learners

(FGL) can improve their English, Motivation to go to

School: Although FGL belong to good and financially sound

families but just because of lack of exposure to English

language, their development is constrained. India has a

remarkably low poverty line and unfortunately English

language has been limited to English medium schools catering

to upper class or middle class only. Therefore, the need is to

reduce the fee structure of the English medium schools so that

even the children from poor families can get English medium

education, or to give some kind of scholarship to the students

from poor families. The students should be motivated to take

school seriously and to attend the classes regularly because

school is the temple of learning where transformation begins.

Quality Teachers: A teacher is a person who is suppose to be ‘a

leading learner’ working among his/her learners. He/she stands

just ahead of his/her learners in his/her knowledge and

experience steering the entire group as per needed in the right

direction.

4

Teaching is a very noble profession and teachers are

considered the builders of the nation. The students learn from

their teachers and adopt their style and manners. Therefore

English training programs and workshops should be

conducted for all teachers whether they are teaching English or

not because basic knowledge of English is a must. Only then can

they create proper environment for English in schools and

colleges. It is the responsibility of each and every institution

small or big to provide basic knowledge of English for

communication enhancement. Foundation courses in English for

teachers would help them to prepare for a better tomorrow.

Family planning and two drops of polio etc were the campaigns

started by the government and the remarkable changes brought

about by them in the society. Polio is eradicated to a great extent

and families have limited themselves to one or two children. We

understand that there is no magic spell to bring about a change in

the society. People slowly and gradually accept what is prevalent

and transformation certainly takes place sooner or later.

Perseverance: The problem with FGL is that they find Hindi

easier as it is spoken at home, it is their mother tongue and they

feel comfortable rather they don’t have to put any extra efforts,

as it comes naturally. With English it is like first learning the

language and then understanding the subjects taught in that

medium. Because of this they drop the idea of pursuing English

language not realizing that this would be a life time skill which

they are going to attain. At this point the role of teachers and

parents is very important.

Now here comes the role of parents and teachers. A regular

counseling of parents should be done so that they can act as

pushers in motivational form. Teachers should put in their best

to make their classes interesting. Games can be played in classes

related to the subject to keep students encouraged and inspired.

This will help them to acquire the skill unknowingly. Debate

surrounds the question of whether success is the result of one’s

motivation or one’s motivation is the result of success.

Nevertheless, these results are suggestive. Students who study

only for the sake of passing a test are highly unlikely to be

successful. Strong instrumental motivations are better. In this

study, however, it appears that students with an integrative

motivation are most likely to be successful

5

.

Doing Creative Things: Students should be motivated to read

as much as possible in english. Even reading comic or cartoon

books would also help. Children must be told to watch all

children programs and movies in English. Teachers should

watch BBC news etc. and discuss with the students. Teachers International Research Journal of Social Sciences_________________________________________________ I Res. J. Social Sci.

Vol. 1(1), 35-38, September (2012)

International Science Congress Association 37

should spend 5-10 minutes in every class to discuss with

students about the programs of children’s interest. A vocabulary

book should be maintained by one and all. They must learn a

few words every day. Trick is to revise them next day, a week

later, a month later and six months later so that it is memorized

properly.

Over Crowded Classes: The number of learners in the

classroom should be limited. A class that could barely

accommodate thirty or fourty seats contains candidates twice its

strength

6

. There should not be more than 20 learners in a class.

Our crowed classes lead to frustration of teachers teaching

foreign language. A few students can learn in a better way and

the teacher can also give individual attention to them. More

activities can be carried out with less number of students and

they can comprehend lessons in a better way. Group discussions,

group presentations can be carried out in the classroom to help

the student’s enhance their language. This will not only help in

improving their fluency but also in building their confidence.

Resources: As a rapid developing country, India is going

towards mass developments such as industries of I.T., B.PO’s,

Apparels and Tourism etc. India is maintaining a strong foreign

policy to achieve its goals. English is an international language

used vastly all over the world to communicate. We have to learn

English for various reasons and for that we have to depend on

resources from English speaking countries. We have to utilize

resources like books, newspapers, radios, television sets, movies

etc. Internet education should be given to students and once they

become familiar with it they further can enhance their language.

Reading of English news papers should be made compulsory in

class rooms. Students should develop a habit of going through it.

They should look for hard words in the dictionary, note them

out, make sentences etc. they should also be told to summarize

the journals they like in their own words. An English movie once

in a month can be kept as a moral booster activity. Generally sub

titles are given underneath the screens so that they can see what

they are saying and also enjoy the movie at the same time.

Besides, they should be encouraged to visit libraries regularly,

spend more time in reading and searching meanings of difficult

words, understand language properly and to remember that the

more they read the better they speak. Besides, finding some pen

friend from internet, chatting, social networking etc. can also

help them in improving their language.

Surroundings Help: The best and the most important way of

learning English is to take the help of one’s surroundings. One

can learn to speak English only when one constantly uses that

language in his speech. One must therefore try as much as

possible to speak to his friends in English. The teachers too

instead of emphasizing grammar must teach simple sentences

used in everyday conversation. English grammar is very

complicated and has a lot of exceptions. The FGL find it

confusing with no fixed rules and thus lose interest. On the other

hand if they learn simple sentences, memorize it and use it in

their speech, they enjoy and feel motivated and confident. Once

they start enjoying the language they use it often and thus

enhance their personality.

Here we would like to quote an example, we have observed in

the city Jaipur that the auto Rikshawallas of the city and the

salesman of the local markets of Bapu Bzar, Johari bazaar,

Hawa Mahal, MI Road etc. were good at English. Neither they

were well educated, nor had anybody taught them. It was only

due to the tourist coming to Jaipur from all over the world that

they were able to communicate so well. The influence of

surrounding can thus be seen. Therefore if a person submerges

himself with English speaking people or speaks English

continuously he can easily master the language.

Clubs: Interactive sessions are necessary and for that English

clubs can be formed which would give all the members a

platform to speak without any hesitation because everybody

would be at par. The clubs can organize various group

activities which would help the students to speak without any

hesitation. Activities such as role plays, debate etc can be

conducted at regular intervals to promote the use of English.

Conclusion

Sum-up: You don’t have to know English for the decent

social life but at educational and professional front you need to

have proper training and guidance. It helps in communication

with others irrespective of the nationality. To be high-tech, to

survive and that to successfully, knowledge of English is a

must. We would therefore appeal to each and everyone to

contribute their experience and most importantly their time to

educate the first generation learners with this global and

wonderful language. English has been utilised as the most

commonly shared language in India by its engineers to work

cooperatively with their international engineering counterparts.

In the meantime, English is playing a doublesided role: as a

valuable asset for those who have it and a barrier for those who

have not.

English Language Teaching Methodology

Methods of teaching foreign languages
There are many methods of teaching languages. Some have had their heyday and have fallen into relative obscurity; others are widely used now; still others have a small following, but contribute insights that may be absorbed into the generally accepted mix.
The grammar translation method
The grammar translation method instructs students in grammar, and provides vocabulary with direct translations to memorize. It was the predominant method in Europe in the 19th century. Most instructors now acknowledge that this method is ineffective by itself. It is now most commonly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages.
At school, the teaching of grammar consists of a process of training in the rules of a language which must make it possible to all the students to correctly express their opinion, to understand the remarks which are addressed to them and to analyze the texts which they read. The objective is that by the time they leave college, the pupil controls the tools of the language which are the vocabulary, grammar and the orthography, to be able to read, understand and write texts in various contexts. The teaching of grammar examines the texts, and develops awareness that language constitutes a system which can be analyzed. This knowledge is acquired gradually, by traversing the facts of language and the syntactic mechanisms, going from simplest to the most complex. The exercises according to the program of the course must untiringly be practised to allow the assimilation of the rules stated in the course. That supposes that the teacher corrects the exercises. The pupil can follow his progress in practicing the language by comparing his results. Thus can he adapt the grammatical rules and control little by little the internal logic of the syntactic system. The grammatical analysis of sentences constitutes the objective of the teaching of grammar at the school. Its practice makes it possible to recognize a text as a coherent whole and conditions the training of a foreign language. Grammatical terminology serves this objective. Grammar makes it possible for each one to understand how the mother tongue functions, in order to give him the capacity to communicate its thought.
The direct method
The direct method, sometimes also called natural method, is a method that refrains from using the learners ' native language and just uses the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900. The direct method operates on the idea that second language learning must be an imitation of first language learning, as this is the natural way humans learn any language - a child never relies on another language to learn its first language, and thus the mother tongue is not necessary to learn a foreign language. This method places great stress on correct pronunciation and the target language from outset. It advocates teaching of oral skills at the expense of every traditional aim of language teaching.
According to this method, printed language and text must be kept away from second language learner for as long as possible, just as a first language learner does not use printed word until he has good grasp of speech.
Learning of writing and spelling should be delayed until after the printed word has been introduced, and grammar and translation should also be avoided because this would involve the application of the learner 's first language. All above items must be avoided because they hinder the acquisition of a good oral proficiency.
The audio-lingual method
The audio-lingual method has students listen to or view recordings of language models acting in situations. Students practice with a variety of drills, and the instructor emphasizes the use of the target language at all times. The audio-lingual method was used by the United States Army for "crash" instruction in foreign languages during World War II. Due to weaknesses in performance, audio-lingual methods are rarely the primary method of instruction today.
Communicative language teaching
Communicative language teaching (CLT) is an approach to the teaching of languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. Despite a number of criticisms, it continues to be popular, particularly in Europe, where constructivist views on language learning and education in general dominate academic discourse.
In recent years, Task-based language learning (TBLL), also known as task-based language teaching (TBLT) or task-based instruction (TBI), has grown steadily in popularity. TBLL is a further refinement of the CLT approach, emphasizing the successful completion of tasks as both the organizing feature and the basis for assessment of language instruction.
Language immersion
Language immersion puts students in a situation where they must use a foreign language, whether or not they know it. This creates fluency, but not accuracy of usage. French-language immersion programs are common in Canada in the state school system as part of the drive towards bilingualism.
Minimalist/methodist
Paul Rowe 's minimalist/methodist approach. This new approach is underpinned with Paul Nation 's three actions of successful ESL teachers.[citation needed] Initially it was written specifically for unqualified, inexperienced people teaching in EFL situations. However, experienced language teachers are also responding positively to its simplicity. Language items are usually provided using flashcards. There is a focus on language-in-context and multi-functional practices.
Directed practice
Directed practice has students repeat phrases. This method is used by U.S. diplomatic courses. It can quickly provide a phrasebook-type knowledge of the language. Within these limits, the student 's usage is accurate and precise. However the student 's choice of what to say is not flexible.
Learning strategies
Code switching
Code switching, that is, changing between languages at some point in a sentence or utterance, is a commonly used communication strategy among language learners and bilinguals. While traditional methods of formal instruction often discourage code switching, students, especially those placed in a language immersion situation, often use it. If viewed as a learning strategy, wherein the student uses the target language as much as possible but reverts to their native language for any element of an utterance that they are unable to produce in the target language, then it has the advantages that it encourages fluency development and motivation and a sense of accomplishment by enabling the student to discuss topics of interest to him or her early in the learning process -- before requisite vocabulary has been memorized. It is particularly effective for students whose native language is English, due to the high probability of a simple English word or short phrase being understood by the conversational partner.
Blended learning
Blended learning combines face-to-face teaching with distance education, frequently electronic, either computer-based or web-based. It has been a major growth point in the ELT (English Language Teaching) industry over the last ten years.
Some people, though, use the phrase 'Blended Learning ' to refer to learning taking place while the focus is on other activities. For example, playing a card game that requires calling for cards may allow blended learning of numbers (1 to 10).
Private tutoring
Tutoring by a native speaker can be one of the most effective ways of learning. However, it requires a skilled, motivated native tutor, which can be a rare, expensive commodity. That tutor may draw on one or several of the above methods.
New online offerings allow for language tutoring over the internet. Problems of Learning English to Students in India

he article "The Problems of Learning English Literature For Rural Indian Students" is based on my own observations and sharing views with students in India, supplemented by information collected from other resource persons in this field. A major source of information has been the large number of sighs and whims on exam papers, written by students.

Field survey of "The Problems of Learning English Literature For Rural Indian Students” took place during the rainy season 1999 when I was volunteering in a village primary school. This was during a rare and colourful phase of my transition, when I was preparing myself teaching and setting up structures for the continuation of my work. Further investigations have been made during visits to different schools and colleges in India and coaching tutorial to my students ranging primary to teaching aspirant from 2000 to till date. The better part of my study is conducted with rural students who have been studying English Literature in graduation or masters.

Repeatedly my students have claimed that when they are trying to make the attempt of writing their feelings on a particular literary piece, words are bound to become insane. We can 't dive into the vast ocean of their problems here. We 'll rather get acquainted with a brief outline of their problems and their extensive feelings.

Most of my students claim that the method of their learning English is impractical. It hardly enable them to learn English with comprehension and speak it correctly so as to make themselves understand and express simple ideas and give easy description in writing English language. According to my students, in campus they never converse each other through English. The students are tied down to the prescribed books, authors, history and of course the notes that they will latter copy in the exam papers. I cant deny this argument as most of the student 's answer script are tediously the same tautology.

Partha, a student of English M. A., says that the language skills of understanding, speaking, reading and writing in them are delinked from their need of working knowledge of English in varying social conditions. They are able to understand but hardly enjoy common English language of everyday life. Commonest form of correspondence in English to people, friends, relatives, tradesman and officials are possible in given practical situations.However such an opportunity is denied in the present syllabi. Contrastingly literature is learned only by theory never on practice, both the taste of literature and language is gone for ever.
[pic]Thus even after studying Keats- Shelley -Byron they are unable to make contact or communications with outside environment or world and make easy adjustments with different people lands and nature through English. The greater sphere of communications that should have been leading and establishing them in greater part of life, is missing them.

My students take English Literature with the hope that they will be placed in higher academic life and higher qualifications in any sphere of education throughout their own land and abroad. Myself an alchemist, in that perspective, try my best to transform students ' energies from the lowest to the highest center of functioning, from the mud to the lotus, from the baser metal into gold, from stones into diamonds!!!! The result is failure in its truest meaning. The reason is lack of preparation and if I try to prepare the soil, the seasons pass-by. The exam 'tolls the knell of parting day, '.

Certainly we the teachers are responsible, but it is a vicious circle; we are not the only ones who are responsible. The successful politicians and priests of university keep conditioning the new generations for the same ambitions; they make the society, they cultivate its mind and conditioning.They also can not deny responsibility.

Communicative competence Approach to Language Teaching

The Definition Of CLT

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) originated from the changes in the British Situational Language Teaching approach dating from the late 1960s (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Stemming from the socio-cognitive perspective of the socio-linguistic theory, with an emphasis on meaning and communication, and a goal to develop learners’ “communicative competence”, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach evolves as a prominent language teaching method and gradually replaced the previous grammar-translation method and audio-lingual method (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Since the concept of “communicative competence” was first introduced by Hymes in the mid-1960s, many researchers have helped develop theories and practices of Communicative Language Teaching approach (Brown, 1987; Canale, 1983; Hymes, 1971; Littlewood, 1981; Nattinger, 1984; Nunan, 1987 &1989; Richards & Rodgers, 1986; Widdowson, 1990). Hymes coined this term in contrast to Chomsky’s “Linguistic Competence”. As Stern (1992) explicated, “Competence represents proficiency at its most abstract and psychologically deepest level” (p.73). Chomsky indicated that underlying the concrete language performance, there is an abstract rule system or knowledge and this underlying knowledge of the grammar of the language by the native speaker is his “linguistic competence”. In contrast, Hymes argue that in addition to linguistic competence, the native speaker has another rule system. In Hymes’ view, language was considered as a social and cognitive phenomenon; syntax and language forms were understood not as autonomous, acontextual structures, but rather as meaning resources used in particular conventional ways and develop through social interaction and assimilation of others’ speech (Warschauer & Kern, 2000). Therefore, speakers of a language have to have more than grammatical competence in order to be able to communicate effectively in a language; they also need to know how language is used by members of a speech community to accomplish their purposes (Hymes, 1968). Based on this theory, Canale and Swain (1980) later extend the “Communicative competence” into four dimensions. In Canale and Swain, “‘Communicative competence’ was understood as the underlying systems of knowledge and skill required for communication. Knowledge refers here to what one knows (consciously or unconsciously) about the language and about other aspects of communicative language use; skill refers to how well one can perform this knowledge in actual communication (Canale, 1983, p.5)”. From this perspective, what language teachers need to teach is no longer just linguistic competence but also socio-linguistic competence (“which utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different socio-linguistic contexts”), discourse competence (“mastery of how to combine grammatical forms and meanings to achieve a unified spoken or written text in different genres”), and strategic competence (“mastery of verbal and non-verbal communication strategies that may be called into action for compensating or enhancing communication”) (Canale, 1983, pp.7-11).

Distinguishing Features Of CLT

Richards and Rodgers (2001) have reviewed a number of people’s works on CLT and described several distinguishing features of it. As “communicative competence” is the desired goal, in CLT, meaning is paramount (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards and Rodgers, 2001). In socio-cognitive perspectives, language is viewed as a vehicle of conveying meaning, and knowledge is transmitted through communication involving two parts, for example, speakers and listeners, and writers and readers, but is constructed through negotiation. As a consequence, “communication is not only a matter of following conventions but also of negotiating through and about the conventions themselves. It is a convention-creating as well as convention-following activity (Breen & Candlin, 2001, p.10)”. Therefore, there are three elements involved in the underlying learning theory: communication principle, task-based principle, and meaningfulness principle (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.161). Based on this perception, when applied to language learning, “functional activities” and “social interaction activities” (Littlewood, 1981) are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaning and authentic language use; learning is interpersonal to learn to communicate; attempt to communicate may be encouraged from the very beginning; dialogues, if used, centre around communicative functions and not normally memorized; and contextualization is basic premise; drilling may occur, but peripherally; any device that helps to communicate and understand is acceptable (Finocchiaro & Brumfit, 1983, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.156). To some extent, that is to say, students do not simply learn the linguistic structures and grammar rules. Rather, they should be actively making meaning through activities such as collaborative problem solving, writing for a purpose, discussion of topics of genuine interest, and reading, viewing and responding to authentic materials (Murphy, 2000). Since knowledge and learning are viewed as socially constructed through negotiation according to socio-cognitive perspectives (Breen & Candlin, 2001), another dimension of CLT is learner-centred and experience-based. “With interactive communicative language use as the call of the day, communicative processes became as important as linguistic product, and instruction became more learner-centered and less structurally driven” (Kern & Warschauer, 2000, p.5). In another word, in CLT context, learners are seen as active participants in the construction of knowledge, rather than passive recipients of information provided by the teacher or the textbook. In contrast, language teachers are no longer viewed as the authority of the knowledge, playing a dominant role. Rather, they share different roles such as communication facilitater, independent participant, needs analyst, counselor, and group process manager (Richards & Rodgers, 2001, p.167) to create more fascinating experiences for the learners. Besides the above features, Richards and Rodgers (2001) describe other significant characteristics of this approach including its efforts to make tasks and language relevant to a target group of learners through an analysis of genuine, realistic situations, its emphasis on the use of authentic, from-life materials, and its attempt to create a secure, nonthreatening atmosphere. All these attempts also follow the major principles of communicative view of language and language learning: helping learners learn a language through authentic and meaningful communication, which involves a process of creative construction, to achieve fluency. In this vein, in terms of classroom activity, it includes group work, task-work, information-gap activities, and projects.
The Weaknesses Of CLT Yet, inevitably, despite these outstanding characteristics, CLT also have weaknesses. Schmitt (2000) argued that CLT needs supportive vocabulary for functional language use but it gives little guidance about how to handle vocabulary. However, it has been now realized that mere exposure to language and practice with functional communication will not ensure the proficiency in language learning, so current best practice includes “both a principled selection of vocabulary, often according to frequency lists, and an instruction methodology that encourages meaningful engagement with words over a number of recyclings” (p.14). Stern (1992) also pointed out that CLT approach puts an excessive emphasis on the single concept “communication” so that “in order to account for all varieties and aspects of language teaching we either stretch the concept of communication so much that it loses any distinctive meaning, or we accept its limitations and then find ourselves in the predicament of the “method” solution” (p. 14). Some people criticized that as CLT focus on learner-centered approach, while in some accounts of CLT, learners bring preconception of what teaching and learning should be like, which when unrealized can lead to learner confusion and resentment (Henner-Stanchina & Riley, 1978, cited by Richards & Rodgers, 2001). In addition, some people contended that CLT has not given an adequate account of EFL teaching despite its initial growth in foreign language teaching in Europe (Li, 2001). Stern (1992) argued that one of the most difficult problems is making classroom learning communicative is the absence of native speakers. Apparently, CLT are more successful in English as a Second Language (ESL) context because students usually have a very supportive learning environment outside school. They have more chances to be exposed to the authentic contact with native speakers and the target language, which reinforces what they learn in class. Besides, they have the motivation to work on oral English because they need it in their lives. In contrast, in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context, due to some physical limitations, such as the purpose of learning English, learning environments, teachers’ English proficiency, and the availability of authentic English materials, CLT meets much more difficulties during its application. confronted by language teachers but it has a great potential that gain the apparent popularity in language teaching and learning domain. It also needs to realize that there In summary, CLT cannot be seen as a panacea for the problems that have been isn’t a fix framework of CLT. As learners and the learning context are dynamic, when CLT is applied to a certain context, the adaptation and innovation of it is necessary. Remedial Teaching

very difficult for students to learn mathematics without the basics. Students show interest in thesubjects they like and neglect other subjects if not taken care of. An urban child learns languageslike English well while a rural child cannot, however well the teacher tries to explain.Remedial measuresLearning takes place from simple to complex. If for some reason the student has not learnt the basics, it is futile to teach him the advanced topics. Remedial teaching is not revising the topicstaught repeatedly. Careful analysis of the students ' performance in the examination anddiagnosing the areas of difficulty are key aspects in remedial teaching. Once the difficult areasare identified, the next task is to plan the learning experiences to teach the basics to understandthe given topic.Teachers often feel that what has not been learnt at the primary level, cannot be taughtsimultaneously with the prescribed topics at the secondary level as they are busy completing thesyllabus. Experience shows that once the basics are taught, the learning process is acceleratedand the slow learners comprehend and grasp the given topics of the class, since they have alreadyattained the mental age.In government run residential schools in Andhra Pradesh and Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalayasnation wide, the students are admitted in class VI based on a selection test consisting of a varietyof questions to test intelligence and aptitude of the students.It has been observed that many students thus selected do not possess the basics which they aresupposed to learn at the primary level. But these schools have produced excellent results over theyears by introducing bridge courses in their academic planning.Subjects like physics pose difficulty for students when compared to biology. In biologicalsciences, students can see and find meaning in what they study. Whereas physics is somewhatintricate and difficult for students without good knowledge of mathematics. Poor performance in physics can be remedied by first teaching the required basic mathematical operations. Sometimeslanguage becomes a barrier for students to understand the vast areas in subjects like geography.The innumerable new words used to describe various phenomena baffle the students. Students donot find these words in English language textbooks although they learn English language to pursue others subjects in an inter- disciplinary approach. The teacher has to explain all the wordsand their usage related to his subject before he teaches the concept.The new words used in questions could confuse students and elicit wrong answers from them.Students should be exposed to a variety of questions with antonyms and synonyms - all thewords used to frame a question to test the topic taught. Merely tagging the slow learners with bright students or segregating them into separate sections will not help the slow learners. Slowlearners harbour themselves unobtrusively in the group of bright students.Students learn a lot from the peer group. Unconscious learning does not take place if students aresegregated. Keeping the slow learners in the peer group of bright students and paying individualattention to them by the teacher will enable them to overocme their difficulties. Student is central in the learning process. The learning experiences should be activity-orientedand the teaching should motivate and create interest in the student to learn on his own. Whengroup discussions are held in the classroom, the slow learners are benefited much.Suitably tailored lesson plan by the teacher and careful monitoring by the school administrationwill help slow learners have a better grasp of all lessons in schools.Y. SREEDHAR RAO
NEED AND UTILITY OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTING
Diagnostic tests are useful to the teachers of English for many reasons. They help theteachers toa)Identify pupils who make slow progress inEnglish language learning,b) Identify the causes of slow progress amongpupils,c) Locate specific weaknesses in an area of Englishlearning,d) Identify the specific areas which needremediation,e) Ascertain the basis for planning remedialteaching in an area of linguistic skills,f) Provide proper feedback to pupils,g) Place the pupils properly in the learning processof English,h) Hasten the process of English language learning,i) Heighten the efficiency of teaching learningprocess, j) Modify and adjust methods of providing learningexperiences.PROCEDURE TO FRAME DIAGNOSTIC TESTSThe procedure to frame diagnostic tests involves two steps. They are- A) Analysis of complex performance into its component sub skills. For ex:- Thecomponent of µIndirect narration¶ are ±
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Understanding the dialogue from together with reporting verbs and reportedspeech.
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Understanding the correct reference of pronouns use in reported speech.
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Recognizing the types of sentences used in the reported speech.
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Recognizing the tense used in the reported speech.
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Ability to modify pronouns, tense forms reporting verbs, and sentenceconstructions.
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Skill to use proper punctuation marks.B) Developing tests for each of the component skills. The second step involved in developing diagnostic tests is to frame suitable test itemsfor each minute skill in the sub skill of a learning area. There should be many test itemsso that the entire area of sub skill is covered. Generally objective type of test items arepreferred and while doing so all the norms of objectives test items should be followed.
ADMINISTRATION OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Administration of diagnostic tests is similar to that of administration of unit tests andachievement tests. However, some precautions must be taken. They are as followsa)Introduction by the teacher:- The purpose of the diagnostic test should be clarifiedto the pupils.b) Proper instructions to pupils:- Proper instructions regarding the method of answering the questions should be given.c) Time limit: Generally, no time limit is prescribed for diagnostic tests so that eachpupil works at his own speed.
CONCEPT OF REMEDIAL TEACHING
Diagnostic testing and remedial teaching go hand in hand. Diagnostic testing ismeaningless and useless without remedial teaching.µTo remedy¶ means to cure against a defect. Therefore, remedial teaching is providinginstructional corrective ness. It is a process of filling in the gaps in the previous learning,a process of removing distortions that have crept into pupils learning. It is a type of instruction through which errors are corrected and repetition of earlier flows isprevented.It is a purposeful effort to reinforce the forgotten ports introduced earlier. To sum up, itis an instructional effort to upgrade underachievers by remedying their errors.Need and utility of remedial teaching:Remedial teaching is useful to pupils and teachers because of following reasons.a) It fills in the gaps that have crept into pupil¶s learning.b) It provides for reinforcement of the parts or structures that are forgotten due todisuse.c) It rectifies the concepts in English that have been misunderstood.d) It provides correct and necessary foundation which is useful for future learning.e) It hastens the process of English language learning.f) Underachievers are promoted to put in more efforts to update their learning as aresult of which there is homogeneity in the class.Procedure of organizing remedial teaching:Procedure of organizing remedial teaching involves four steps. They areA)Classification of underachievers:The pupil¶s who commit similar errors in an area of English learning can be groupedtogether.B) Principles to be followed:For effective remedial teaching, following maxims should be followed.a) Some errors and unaccepted norms creep into learning because of factors like lackof motivation, poverty, bad health, ineffective teaching. Therefore, sympathetictreatment is a must. It is a part of remedial teaching.b) Emotional security should be provided to the pupils.c) Accuracy of diagnosis and correct classification should be ascertained.d) Multi-media approach should be used. e) Skills of reading and writing should be developed together with good studyhabits.C) Selection of correctives:Selection of correctives depend on the nature of errors and causes of those errors.e.g. Errors might be caused due to inadequate learning in the past and therefore re-teachwould become necessary.D) Use of correctives:Once a diagnosis is made, classification of pupils is properly made and correctives areproperly selected, the correctives can be put to use. Correctives can be appliedindividually i.e. one pupil at a time or to a group. The teachers who take up the remedialteaching should have a suitable attitude and skill remedial teaching cannot be equate todaily teaching. It is a compensatory teaching.Evaluation of outcomes from remedial teaching:-Evaluation is said to be a continuous process. Therefore, effectiveness of correctives,methods used and the difference in achievement in an area of underachievementshouldbe evaluated. The diagnostic test given earlier to detect flows can be treated as thepretest.The same test can be used as the ost-test.The average scores of two tests can be compared. A significant difference betweenthe two average score would mean that application of correctives and use of methodshave resulted in remediation. If not, suitable modifications are needed. Thus, evaluationrefers not only to average scores but every aspect of diagnosis and remediation

Remedial Teaching in India

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