Report Sample

ARE THEY WATCHING? TEST-TAKER VIEWING BEHAVIOR DURING AN L2 VIDEO LISTENING TEST
Paginated PDF Version
Elvis Wagner
Teachers College, Columbia University
ABSTRACT
The accessibility of video technology has made it possible to utilize both the auditory and visual channels to present listening texts in the second language (L2) classroom and on L2 listening tests. However, there has been little research investigating the extent to which L2 listeners actually watch the video monitor when presented with a listening video text. The current study investigated test-taker behavior on an L2 video listening test. Thirty-six test-takers were videotaped while taking a listening test composed of six separate video texts, and the amount of time test-takers made eye contact with the video monitor was computed. An analysis of the data indicated that the group of participants oriented to the video monitor 69% of the time while the video text was played. In addition, the study yielded valuable information concerning the consistency of the test-takers’ viewing behavior.

INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, the aural input for second language (L2) listening tasks has been delivered by a teacher reading aloud a text for the students. Later, as audio technology developed, a text was recorded on audiotape and played for students. However, with the advent and dissemination in the 1980s of inexpensive, reliable, and high-quality video recording equipment, it became practical to deliver listening texts using video texts, which involve both the auditory and visual channels. Subsequently, the use of video to teach listening comprehension has become more common in the L2 classroom. As Nunan (2005) suggested, in many aspects technology has become as effective as humans in delivering content for L2 listening classrooms.
As the use of video to teach L2 listening increased, researchers became more cognizant of the role of non-verbal communication in listening ability. A general consensus seems

References: Alderson, J., Clapham, C., & Wall, D. (1995). Language test construction and evaluation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Allan, M. (1984). Viewing comprehension in the EFL classroom. ELT Journal, 38, 21-26. Altman, R. (1990). Toward a new video pedagogy: The role of schema theory and discourse analysis. IALL Journal of Language Learning Technologies, 23, 9-16. Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baltova, I. (1994). The impact of video on comprehension skills of core French students. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50, 507-531. Bejar, I., Douglas, D., Jamieson, J., Nissan, S., & Turner, J. (2000). TOEFL 2000 listening framework: A working paper (TOEFL Monograph Series Report No. 19). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Berne, J. (1995). How does varying pre-listening activities affect second language listening comprehension? Hispania, 78, 316-329. Brett, P. (1997). A comparative study of the effects of the use of multimedia on listening comprehension. System, 25, 39-53. Brown, G. (1995). Dimensions of difficulty in listening comprehension. In D. Mendelshon & J. Rubin (Eds.), A guide for the teaching of second language listening (pp. 59-73). San Diego: Dominie Press. Buck, G. (2001). Assessing Listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Burgoon, J. (1994). Non-verbal signals. In M. Knapp & G. Miller (Eds.), Handbook of interpersonal communication (pp. 344-393). London: Routledge. Cervantes, R., & Gainer G. (1992). The effects of syntactic simplification and repetition on listening comprehension. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 767-770. Chiang, C., & Dunkel, P. (1992). The effect of speech modification, prior knowledge and listening proficiency on EFL lecture learning. TESOL Quarterly, 26, 345-374. Chang, A., & Read, J. (2006). The effects of listening support on the listening performance of EFL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 40, 375-397. Dunkel, P. (1991). Computerized testing of nonparticipatory L2 listening comprehension proficiency: An ESL prototype development effort. Modern Language Journal, 75, 64-73. Gruba, P. (1993). A comparison study of audio and video in language testing. JALT Journal, 15, 85-88. Gruba, P. (1994). Design and development of a video-mediated test of communicative proficiency. JALT Journal, 16, 25-40. Gruba, P. (1997). The role of video media in listening assessment. System, 25, 335-345. Hasan, A. (2000). Learners’ perceptions of listening comprehension problems. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 13, 137-153. Kellerman, S. (1990). Lip service: The contribution of the visual modality to speech perception and its relevance to the teaching and testing of foreign language listening comprehension. Applied Linguistics, 11, 272-280. Kellerman, S. (1992). ‘I see what you mean’: The role of kinesic behaviour in listening and implications for foreign and second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 13, 239-258. Lynch, T. (1998). Theoretical perspective on listening. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 3-19. MacWilliam, I Nunan, D. (2005). From the special issues editor. Language Learning & Technology, 9(3), 2-3. Retrieved October 28, 2005 from http://llt.msu.edu/vol9num3/pdf/speced.pdf. Nissan, S., Devnicenzi, F., & Tang, K. (1996). An analysis of factors affecting the difficulty of dialogue items in TOEFL listening comprehension (TOEFL Research Report No. 51). Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Parry, T., & Meredith, R. (1984). Videotape vs. audiotape for listening comprehension tests: An experiment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Services ED 254 107). Progosh, D. (1996). Using video for listening assessment opinions of test-takers. TESL Canada Journal, 14, 34-43. Rost, M. (1990). Listening in language learning. New York: Longman. Samuels, S Samuels, S. (1987). Factors that influence listening and reading comprehension. In R. Horowitz & S. Samuels (Eds.), Comprehending oral and written language (pp. 183-189). San Diego: Academic Press. Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 4, 179-191. Shin, D. (1998). Using video-taped lectures for testing academic language. International Journal of Listening, 12, 56-79. Thompson, I., & Rubin, J. (1996). Can strategy instruction improve listening comprehension? Foreign Language Annals, 29, 331-342. Tomlin, R., & Villa, V. (1994). Attention in cognitive science and second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 183-203. VanPatten, B von Raffler-Engel, W. (1980). Kinesics and paralinguistics: A neglected factor in second language research and teaching. Canadian Modern Language Review, 36, 225-237. Wagner, E. (2002). Video listening tests: A pilot study. Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, Teachers College, Columbia University, 2(1), Retrieved March 31, 2006, from http://www.tc.edu/tesolalwebjournal. Wagner, M. (2006). Utilizing the visual channel: An investigation of the use of video texts on tests of second language listening ability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York.