The Glass Ceiling Summary
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Break on Through to the Other Side of the Glass Ceiling by Hamid R. Tavakolian The author can be contacted at the Department of Management, California State University, Fullerton, California 92634-9480, USA. A legendary and very successful Madison Avenue adman, David Ogilvy, was once quoted as saying, "The consumer is not a moron, she is your wife" (Landler, 1992). This type of statement was commonplace twenty to thirty years ago and summed up the sentiments of what was believed by many to be women 's contribution to society - going shopping for the family. While this statement may have had some truth to it decades ago, the perception as to where women stand in our society …show more content…
have evolved immensely. Today, women are not only the consumers to which marketing is directed, they are the ones implementing the marketing and running the companies. One example of this evolution of women 's role in the work place is that of Jill Barad. She climbed through the ranks of Mattel Inc., headed the very successful Barbie division, and later became president of Mattel in 1990 (Schine, 1992). Another success story worth mentioning is that of Joan Lappin who is president of Gramercy Capital Management Corporation. Lappin fought her way through the male-dominated investment world of Wall Street to become one of the most respected money makers in the industry (Marcial, 1992). While these two success stories, along with countless numbers of similar stories, are encouraging for women, still, they do not represent the norm with regard to women 's ability to climb up the corporate ladder. Biases, prejudices, and downright discrimination have created what some have termed a "glass ceiling". Therefore, we need to ask whether or not women have the same opportunities as men in rising through the ranks with respect to both promotions and pay, or whether their efforts are being thwarted by this so-called glass ceiling? The glass ceiling A good place to begin is to determine what exactly is meant when we refer to the ambiguous term "glass ceiling". "The term 'glass ceiling ' refers to the invisible barriers, real or perceived, which appears to stymie advancement opportunities for minorities and women" (Dominguez, 1991). Bullard and Wright (1993), leaders in research regarding glass ceilings, have further defined the term to be "the actual or perceived barrier or cap beyond which few women (or other previously excluded minorities) in public and private organisational structures are able to move." Many women have contended that they do not receive as much pay as their similarly qualified male counterparts for the same level of work as well as not being allowed to move up the corporate ladder with equal footing into the upper echelons of management. These women and minorities are hitting the invisible barriers of the glass ceiling. But, does this glass ceiling really inhibit movement up the corporate ladder? The climb up the corporate ladder According to Segal and Zellner (1992), a study conducted by Korn/Ferry International revealed that forty-six percent of the entire workforce were women. The study further notes that women comprised forty-one percent of the managers in the work place, while only three percent held the coveted positions of senior executive. The term senior executive refers to the handful of people directly reporting to the CEO. With these types of numbers revealing that women comprise nearly half of the work force while only three per cent of these women are landing the senior executive positions, it leads one to believe that certain factors may inhibit the career path for women. Discrepancies over salaries and incentives Whether women receive the same compensation and incentive programmes that white males receive for having performed equal work is a much debated topic. The Census Department 's figures show that the actual pay for women is only seventy percent of the white males ' pay nationwide, and in California, that number drops to just sixty-nine percent (Brooks, 1993). Moreover, a study conducted by Korn/Ferry International and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) discovered that while female executives ' salaries doubled over the last decade to an average of $187,000, it still lagged behind their male counterparts ' average of $289,000 (Brooks, 1993). These figures parallel closely with the Census Department data which shows that females receive approximately thirty percent less pay than males. It was further determined in the study that this discrepancy happens to women at all levels ranging from staff positions to upper management. But, the wage differential is not the only area of discrimination faced by women. One such disparity is found in the sales profession. Even though women comprised approximately fifty percent of the sales work force, they received less than half of the sales incentives such as paid vacations and gift certificates given to their male counterparts by employers (Gender Gap, 1992). Public sectors As has been discussed, some gaps exist within the private sector, but does this gap also exist in the more legislatively controlled environment of the government? In a state government, the cabinet-level state officials that are
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appointed to their positions by governors bears resemblance to that of top-level corporate executives. On a nationwide scale, almost twenty percent of those who comprise this appointed level of government were women (Few Women Found, 1992). This percentage compares favourably to the private sector 's three percent of senior women executives. Yet, are these numbers truly comparable? It is difficult to compare these percentages because the appointment process skews the findings. In an age of increased political activism by women 's organisations such as the National Organisation of Women (NOW), both governors at the state level as well as the President on the federal level have been "pressured" to appoint women to these cabinet positions. This is not to imply that women are, in any way, less suited for these positions, but we must ask the question, if there were no pressures to appoint women, would the percentage be this high? Additionally, we must question whether twenty percent of women as appointees to this level is high? Most women would answer both questions with a resounding "no". One example of the pressures government leaders are placed under is illustrated in President Clinton 's search for the best qualified woman for the position of US Attorney General rather than searching for the best qualified candidate regardless of gender. With respect to the level of pay women receive as opposed to their male counterparts in state government positions, there are also disparaging discrepancies. According to Hubler and Silverstein (1992), the US Census Bureau data revealed that in 1989, full-time women working in the State of California made an average of $25,015 as compared to the men 's average of $36,248. In calculating these salaries, we discover that women working for the State of California are making a mere sixty-nine cents for each dollar earned by men in comparable positions. This gap even exists in fields that were historically dominated by women such as elementary school teachers who currently find themselves making only eighty-three cents for every dollar earned by their male counterparts (Hulberand Silverstein, 1992). Are these discrepancies in pay and promotions a result of discrimination? Qualifications of women and minorities The excuse typically given for questionable hiring and promotional practices is that of qualifications. This very type of discrimination was put on trial in New York in a case that arose in 1985. Barbara Sogg, having been passed over for the job of general manager of operations at La Guardia Airport, filed suit against American Airlines Inc. (Segal and Zellner, 1992). Sogg contended that she had been discriminated against because of her age, sex, and health. Her suspicions were confirmed when the position in question was handed to a less experienced, younger male. That faux pas committed by American Airlines cost them $7 million after the courts found in
favour of Sogg (Segal and Zellner, 1992). This is just one example of the multitude of legal cases resulting from sexual discrimination which leaves the impression that this type of discriminatory promotional process is not uncommon. Another commonly used excuse for not promoting women is that of educational qualifications. The contention that many corporations held was that women were less educated than their male counterparts, consequently, the male would receive the promotion. According to Dr Rose Mary Wentling (1993), a study conducted by the National Centre for Education Statistics in 1988 revealed that for the first time, women constituted more than half of the university-level students. It was also found that in 1989, women comprised forty-seven percent of those enrolled in undergraduate business programmes, and that thirty-three percent of MBA students were women (Wentling, 1993). Hence, the outdated ideology that women were less educated and less experienced has led to some serious discrimination against women. But, experience and education are not the only ways used to discriminate against women, there is the 'Old Boy 's Network '. The 'Old Boy 's Network ' The term 'Old Boy 's Network ' refers to the system that men in management created in order to look after one another and segregate themselves from female executives and other workers (Dusky, 1992). The Old Boy 's Network is seeded so deeply within the culture of a corporation, at first glance, it is difficult to see. It usually starts out in a simple and innocent form such as an invitation to play golf, racquetball, or other traditional activities. It sounds harmless enough, but the problem lies in the fact that women are excluded. With these artificially created opportunities to engage in the infamous male bonding, the younger male management members have an unsurmountable advantage during promotion time over their female co-workers (Dusky, 1992). Females have to work double-time to achieve the same amount of contacts and have to "start from scratch and prove yourself as if you 're brand new every time" when dealing with the decision makers (Dusky, 1992). Furthermore, women are expected to act as one of the guys while amongst their male counterparts. They are supposed to laugh at all the sexist jokes and endure the naked calendar girls plastered on computer screens. One example of how women have had to endure the Old Boy 's Network in order to achieve success in the upper ranks of management is that of Michele Hooper who is the head of Baxter International Inc 's. Canadian unit and how she handled these conflicts. Being both black and a woman she had to endure some rather tasteless jokes along her
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ascent to the top. As her friends and co-workers put it,"she just laughs it off" (Flynn, 1992). No doubt that some of these jokes are very offensive to Hooper, but she grins and bears it in the pursuit of success. One must also question how this Old Boy 's Network affects the effectiveness of the female executive. If a talented woman climbs her way to the top of the corporation and then, is forced to bite her tongue on some important issue because it might offend one of the men, doesn 't this limit her performance? Conversely, if she becomes audible with her grievance, doesn 't she run the risk of having her male executive counterpart run back to his golfing buddy, Mr President, to complain? With the current recession acting as an excuse to expunge trouble makers, the female executive has to be even more cautious, thus reducing her overall effectiveness. With all of the publicity over the glass ceiling issue in Corporate America, the Department of Labor decided to intervene. The Office of the Federal Contract Compliance Programme During the fall of 1989, The Department of Labor set out to investigate the glass ceiling dilemma, the causes, and the possible remedies (The Government 's View on the "Glass Ceiling", 1991). Additionally, the Office of the Federal Contract Compliance Program (OFCCP) created a glass ceiling commission which commenced a nine corporation study in order to determine what, if any, discrepancies occurred in glass ceiling related issues regarding pay and promotion (Dominguez, 1991). The OFCCP 's main goal is to ensure that government contractors and subcontractors are not engaging in any discriminatory employment practices (Dominguez, 1991, 1992). The following results of the nine corporation study were released by Secretary of Labor Martin on August 8, 1991 and determined that: * * * There was a glass ceiling. There was a lack of corporate strategy involving equal employment opportunity practices. There was a lack of monitoring total compensation systems that determine salaries, bonuses, incentives, and perks. Women were predominantly found in staff rather than in line positions with more of a career path. Each company had different methods of executive training. Internal and external corporate recruitment practices prevented qualified women from management positions (Dominguez, 1992).
With the Department of Labor 's findings in the nine company survey, the question regarding whether the glass ceiling exists because of discrimination had been answered. Because of this discriminatory behaviour in Corporate America, the level of economic output, as well as efficiency, has fallen behind where it should be had the glass ceiling been eliminated (Stuart, 1992). Now that it has been determined that the glass ceiling exists, what agencies have been set up to assist in diversifying the executive work force? The Department of Labor As previously discussed, Secretary of Labor Martin conducted a nine corporation study which determined that the glass ceiling existed. As a result, Martin unveiled plans to investigate federal contractors and subcontractors to ensure that no discriminatory hiring, pay, and promotion practices were evident (Garland, 1991). Additionally, she announced the following comprehensive programme to dismantle the glass ceiling in Corporate America (Dominguez, 1991, 1992): * Corporations will be encouraged to develop their own strategy, based on their own corporate culture in order to allow all employees to reach their highest potential. The OFCCP will continue to monitor how corporations are faring. They have 12 more companies involved in a current study. Their comprehensive procedural guidelines that they use in their studies will be made available to corporations to enable them to understand what they are looking for. Talks will continue with different groups in order to obtain different views to improve their approach. Educational campaigns being implemented will increase public awareness.
*
*
* *
With this programme in place, there is encouragement for women in the future. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 was designed to give women the ability to sue for punitive damages in discrimination cases and to create the Glass Ceiling Commission (Dominguez, 1992; Saltzman, 1991; Dusky, 1992). Additionally, the Civil Rights Act created the Glass Ceiling Commission to address and study the issues as a complement to the work of the OFCCP (Dominguez, 1991,1992). With much debate and a great deal of political manoeuvering, the Civil Rights Act of 1991 was finally signed. With its signing, the door was opened for women to sue for punitive damages. Both the Glass Ceiling Commission and the
* * *
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Department of Labor have initiatied steps to combat practices associated with the glass ceiling practices, but, have these steps resulted in positive strides for women? Recent developments Being that these developments with respect to glass ceilings are so recent, it is difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of these new programmes. Some of the strategies and requirements the federal government is addressing attacks at the very core of some corporate cultures. As we know, culture is one of the slowest things to change. Reviewing the effectiveness from a purely statistical point of view, it appears that change was in the air before all of the acts and requirements were finalised. For example, between the years of 1981 and 1991, the percentage of female managers soared from fourteen percent to forty-one percent. Also, the percentage of female senior executives jumped from one percent to three percent (Segal, 1992). While these numbers are very pleasing in regards to the increase of women in management positions, most women view the increase as slow and want to see more proportionate results in top level management positions. A study conducted by Louis Harris & Associates Inc. for Business Week in 1992 showed that there were indeed changes in the hiring and promoting of women, but the changes were small. Nevertheless, the women surveyed were asked if they believed that larger companies were faring better in the hiring and promoting of female executives. Sixty-four percent of the respondents believed that the larger companies were, at least, somewhat better than five years ago (Segal and Zellner, 1992). This is a good indication that these outside pressures, acts, and regulations are impacting Corporate America, but how do women feel about future prospects? A female perspective Even before the OFCCP began its landmark study and the Civil Rights Act of 1991 was passed, women were gaining influence in the upper echelons of management. It was a slow, tedious process, but was at least improving. Now, with the lights brightly focused on the issue, women expect to see improvements more rapidly than in the past. As previously stated, the numbers of women entering the work force have been increasing along with women 's expectations regarding the current developments, but there are certain potential concerns of which women managers must be made aware. First, there could be a possible backlash against the new managers. Many members of the Old Boy 's Network, as well as those who are aspiring to join this club may resent the fact that pressure had to be applied so that women would be included. Sentiments such as taking a man 's job away from him when he has a family may tend to further strain working relationships, thus limiting the effectiveness of
the new management. Secondly, a new female manager must be concerned with being offered the "token" position. For some women, this "token" position may be acceptable because of the pay increase or other benefits received, but the truly talented executive desires to merely work hard and do his or her job the best he or she can. A token position with no responsibilities would be disastrous for this worker profile. We see potential, future problems that women may face, but how do men feel about the future? A male perspective While looking for a job as a reporter, Clint Williams was told he was qualified for the job but the interviewer told him he was sorry, but he just couldn 't hire him. "In effect," said Williams, "I was told it was too bad you 're a white male" (Solomon, 1991). While this is a case of a lower level employee, it is still pertinent to the upper management of a corporation. With the new requirements to which corporations must adhere, the higher level positions will one day be thrust into a position quite similar to this one. Eventually, we may see reverse discrimination law suits as the pendulum swings away to the other side. This will probably not be due to the fact that a woman had to be put in higher position, but rather it will more than likely result from the male feeling shunned and slighted when a more talented female has been chosen for the job. After all, he has a family to support. But how does management perceive these changes? Organisational perspectives Management 's concern with the new trend of having to comply with the government in their hiring, pay, and promotion policies has to do with the company structure and culture. With regards to the company 's culture, management fears that increased interference from government may not take into consideration the fact that every company has a different culture. Ronnie Miller- Haday, vice president for personnel at PepsiCo Inc., says, "We try to explain as best we can what the organisation is like and how things work, [but] it 's hard to say whether they understand it" (Garland, 1991). Since the cultures of corporations vary greatly, it makes the task of the government to set guidelines difficult. For instance, suppose one company values experienced workers in a foreign market. The promotion desired, then, would be to an overseas assignment to be groomed for a senior executive job. On the other hand, a different company might not share the same views on the importance of international experience. The question, then, is where does the government set the guidelines with regard to promotions in overseas operations? We can see that corporations do have legitimate concerns with regard to how and where the guidelines will be set.
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Managers are balking at both cultural and structural concerns. They are adamantly opposed to having the culture or the structure of the company tampered with in the name of reform. As Susan Meisinger, lobbyist for the Society of Human Resource Management, stated "There 's a fine line between the government telling you that you have a glass-ceiling violation and telling you how to manage your business" (Garland and Driscoll, 1991). But how do political considerations fare? A Political Perspective The government 's view on the whole issue of the glass ceiling varies from office to office and from politician to politician. Obviously, the more conservative an individual, there is a greater probability that he or she will prefer a laissez faire approach involving the government 's dealing with businesses. The more liberal an individual, the greater the likelihood that he or she will support the new restrictions that will be levied upon businesses. According to Garland (1991), Bush had threatened to veto the civil rights bill that would have made it easier for women to pursue discrimination cases in court. Bush allowed the act to pass in 1991. The problem the White House was having with the bill was that it would allow women to seek punitive damages in discrimination cases. Additionally, there was concern as to how the glass ceiling initiative would be interpreted and what kind of enforcement effort would be required (Saltzman, 1991). Hence, Bush 's hesitation to sign the bill. Changes on the Horizon Is it possible to dismantle the years of discriminatory practices? The answer, of course, is yes. It will take a long time - a very long time - but it can be accomplished. As has been previously discussed, incredible strides have been made just within the last decade. Now, some of the skeptics will say that this kind of harmonious work place can never be achieved, that discrimination is just a way of life. They will also say that there is no way around the Old Boy 's Network or any way to break the glass ceiling. All these people need to do to quiet their negativity is to look at the developments within the last five years. Some of the trends the studies depicted should serve as inspiration to the coming decades. Just because we seem to be headed in the right direction is not to say that the progress is acceptable and that we can become complacent. To the contrary, there is hard work ahead. The OFCCP, the Glass Ceiling Commission and the Department of Labor have set out some strategies for this issue (Dominguez, 1991). Those strategies were listed in some of the previous sections. But, there are more ways to achieve breaking the glass ceiling
Moving from governmental actions to break the glass ceiling to internal actions that companies may implement to assist women breaking through, we focus our attention to a study conducted by Dee Soder (1992) that included some of the following suggestions from women who broke through the barrier. * Use task forces and internal reviews frequently to provide valuable information. Entry channels should not have artificial barriers precluding women and minorities. Assemble a resume that best shows experience since women and minorities may have non-traditional backgrounds. Establish a goal for employing women and minorities. Open training and development programmes to women and minorities at all levels. Don 't hold functions at all male or all white clubs as this could prove embarrassing at best. Take the same risk on a woman or a minority that you would take on a white man. Career moves should not be viewed as developmental for males, but a risk for females. Performance evaluations should be carefully reviewed to protect against unintentional discriminatory wording or biases.
* *
*
*
*
*
*
Monitoring and early intervention programmes should be put in place. * On the lower levels, have group training programmes on "cultural diversity" and "raising awareness". Try to implement a monitoring programme where the executive meets with employees with high potential to help further their career.
*
With corporations implementing these type of ideas, coupled with a certain amount of government regulation, increased numbers of women and minorities in upper management will probably result. Also, it is hopeful that the levels of pay will eventually balance. This, of course, relies on the fact that the government continues to be a factor, but not to the extent where there is a real backlash in the business sector. If the government gets too involved in hiring practices, then we may see corporations, along with their large sacks of cash heading to the lobbyists ' offices to see if their money can somehow turn the situation around.
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Summary The table is being set for the equality of women in the work place. While there are still many obstacles remaining, the foundations have been laid to see the creativity and resourcefulness of women and minorities in the work force. As Chemed Corporation 's President Timothy O 'Toole so eloquently stated, "What you want is a company that doesn 't see its managers as men or women. It sees them as good managers." (Gleason, 1992). While this attitude may be a rarity today, perhaps it will not be uncommon tomorrow.
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References Brooks, N.
(1993, June 30). "Gender pay gap found at top in US Corporations." Los Angeles Times, pp. A1, A5. Bullard, A.M. & Wright, D.S. (1993, May/June). "The glass ceiling." Public Administration Review, 53, pp.189-201. Dominguez, C.M. (1992, Winter). "Executive Forum -The glass ceiling: paradoxes and promises." Human Resource Management, 31, pp.385-392. Dominguez, C.M. (1991, November). "The glass ceiling and workforce 2000." Labor Law Journal, pp.715-717. Dusky, L (1992, February). "The new old boy network." Glamour, pp.162, 197-199. "Few women found in top public jobs." (1992, January 3). New York Times, p.A12. Flynn, J. (1992, June 8). "Mapping out home care." Business Week, p.82. Garland, S. (1991, August 19). "Throwing stones at the 'glass ceiling '." Business Week, p.29. Garland, S.B. & Driscoll, L. (1991, April 29). "Can the Feds bust through the 'glass ceiling '?" Business Week, p.33. "Gender gap in incentive pay." (1992, November 2). Fortune, pp. 14-15. Gleason, M. (1992, September 14-20). 'The view gets better." Cincinnati Business Courier, p.1. "The Government 's view on the 'glass ceiling '." (1991, November). Personnel Journal. p.28. Hubler, S. & Silverstein, S. (1992, December 29). "Women pay in state lags 31 % behind men 's." Los Angeles Times. p.A1. Landler, M. (1992, June 8). "Through the glass ceiling." Business Week. p.78. Marcial, G.G. (1992, June 8). "Very fancy returns." Business Week. p.83. Saltzman, A. (1991, June 17). "Trouble at the top." US News & World Report. pp.40-48. Schine, E. (1992, June 8). "Barbie is her best friend." Business Week. p.80. Segal, A.T. & Zellner, W. (1992, June 8). "Corporate women." Business Week. pp.74-78. Soder, D. (1992, January/February). "Glass ceiling: raising the roof." The Corporate Board.
pp.11-15.
Solomon, C. (1991, November). "Are white males being left out?" Personnel Journal. pp.88-94. Stuart, P. (1992, November). "What does the glass ceiling cost you?" Personnel Journal. pp.77-80. Walters, L.S. (1992, February 14). "Report says US stints women 's half of economy." The Christian Science Monitor. p.8. Wentling, R.M. (1993, April 5). "Women managers: room at the top?" Industry Week. pp.58-61.
Equal Opportunities International Volume 12 Number 6 1993
Break on Through to the Other Side of the Glass Ceiling by Hamid R. Tavakolian The author can be contacted at the Department of Management, California State University, Fullerton, California 92634-9480, USA. A legendary and very successful Madison Avenue adman, David Ogilvy, was once quoted as saying, "The consumer is not a moron, she is your wife" (Landler, 1992). This type of statement was commonplace twenty to thirty years ago and summed up the sentiments of what was believed by many to be women 's contribution to society - going shopping for the family. While this statement may have had some truth to it decades ago, the perception as to where women stand in our society …show more content…
have evolved immensely. Today, women are not only the consumers to which marketing is directed, they are the ones implementing the marketing and running the companies. One example of this evolution of women 's role in the work place is that of Jill Barad. She climbed through the ranks of Mattel Inc., headed the very successful Barbie division, and later became president of Mattel in 1990 (Schine, 1992). Another success story worth mentioning is that of Joan Lappin who is president of Gramercy Capital Management Corporation. Lappin fought her way through the male-dominated investment world of Wall Street to become one of the most respected money makers in the industry (Marcial, 1992). While these two success stories, along with countless numbers of similar stories, are encouraging for women, still, they do not represent the norm with regard to women 's ability to climb up the corporate ladder. Biases, prejudices, and downright discrimination have created what some have termed a "glass ceiling". Therefore, we need to ask whether or not women have the same opportunities as men in rising through the ranks with respect to both promotions and pay, or whether their efforts are being thwarted by this so-called glass ceiling? The glass ceiling A good place to begin is to determine what exactly is meant when we refer to the ambiguous term "glass ceiling". "The term 'glass ceiling ' refers to the invisible barriers, real or perceived, which appears to stymie advancement opportunities for minorities and women" (Dominguez, 1991). Bullard and Wright (1993), leaders in research regarding glass ceilings, have further defined the term to be "the actual or perceived barrier or cap beyond which few women (or other previously excluded minorities) in public and private organisational structures are able to move." Many women have contended that they do not receive as much pay as their similarly qualified male counterparts for the same level of work as well as not being allowed to move up the corporate ladder with equal footing into the upper echelons of management. These women and minorities are hitting the invisible barriers of the glass ceiling. But, does this glass ceiling really inhibit movement up the corporate ladder? The climb up the corporate ladder According to Segal and Zellner (1992), a study conducted by Korn/Ferry International revealed that forty-six percent of the entire workforce were women. The study further notes that women comprised forty-one percent of the managers in the work place, while only three percent held the coveted positions of senior executive. The term senior executive refers to the handful of people directly reporting to the CEO. With these types of numbers revealing that women comprise nearly half of the work force while only three per cent of these women are landing the senior executive positions, it leads one to believe that certain factors may inhibit the career path for women. Discrepancies over salaries and incentives Whether women receive the same compensation and incentive programmes that white males receive for having performed equal work is a much debated topic. The Census Department 's figures show that the actual pay for women is only seventy percent of the white males ' pay nationwide, and in California, that number drops to just sixty-nine percent (Brooks, 1993). Moreover, a study conducted by Korn/Ferry International and the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) discovered that while female executives ' salaries doubled over the last decade to an average of $187,000, it still lagged behind their male counterparts ' average of $289,000 (Brooks, 1993). These figures parallel closely with the Census Department data which shows that females receive approximately thirty percent less pay than males. It was further determined in the study that this discrepancy happens to women at all levels ranging from staff positions to upper management. But, the wage differential is not the only area of discrimination faced by women. One such disparity is found in the sales profession. Even though women comprised approximately fifty percent of the sales work force, they received less than half of the sales incentives such as paid vacations and gift certificates given to their male counterparts by employers (Gender Gap, 1992). Public sectors As has been discussed, some gaps exist within the private sector, but does this gap also exist in the more legislatively controlled environment of the government? In a state government, the cabinet-level state officials that are
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appointed to their positions by governors bears resemblance to that of top-level corporate executives. On a nationwide scale, almost twenty percent of those who comprise this appointed level of government were women (Few Women Found, 1992). This percentage compares favourably to the private sector 's three percent of senior women executives. Yet, are these numbers truly comparable? It is difficult to compare these percentages because the appointment process skews the findings. In an age of increased political activism by women 's organisations such as the National Organisation of Women (NOW), both governors at the state level as well as the President on the federal level have been "pressured" to appoint women to these cabinet positions. This is not to imply that women are, in any way, less suited for these positions, but we must ask the question, if there were no pressures to appoint women, would the percentage be this high? Additionally, we must question whether twenty percent of women as appointees to this level is high? Most women would answer both questions with a resounding "no". One example of the pressures government leaders are placed under is illustrated in President Clinton 's search for the best qualified woman for the position of US Attorney General rather than searching for the best qualified candidate regardless of gender. With respect to the level of pay women receive as opposed to their male counterparts in state government positions, there are also disparaging discrepancies. According to Hubler and Silverstein (1992), the US Census Bureau data revealed that in 1989, full-time women working in the State of California made an average of $25,015 as compared to the men 's average of $36,248. In calculating these salaries, we discover that women working for the State of California are making a mere sixty-nine cents for each dollar earned by men in comparable positions. This gap even exists in fields that were historically dominated by women such as elementary school teachers who currently find themselves making only eighty-three cents for every dollar earned by their male counterparts (Hulberand Silverstein, 1992). Are these discrepancies in pay and promotions a result of discrimination? Qualifications of women and minorities The excuse typically given for questionable hiring and promotional practices is that of qualifications. This very type of discrimination was put on trial in New York in a case that arose in 1985. Barbara Sogg, having been passed over for the job of general manager of operations at La Guardia Airport, filed suit against American Airlines Inc. (Segal and Zellner, 1992). Sogg contended that she had been discriminated against because of her age, sex, and health. Her suspicions were confirmed when the position in question was handed to a less experienced, younger male. That faux pas committed by American Airlines cost them $7 million after the courts found in
favour of Sogg (Segal and Zellner, 1992). This is just one example of the multitude of legal cases resulting from sexual discrimination which leaves the impression that this type of discriminatory promotional process is not uncommon. Another commonly used excuse for not promoting women is that of educational qualifications. The contention that many corporations held was that women were less educated than their male counterparts, consequently, the male would receive the promotion. According to Dr Rose Mary Wentling (1993), a study conducted by the National Centre for Education Statistics in 1988 revealed that for the first time, women constituted more than half of the university-level students. It was also found that in 1989, women comprised forty-seven percent of those enrolled in undergraduate business programmes, and that thirty-three percent of MBA students were women (Wentling, 1993). Hence, the outdated ideology that women were less educated and less experienced has led to some serious discrimination against women. But, experience and education are not the only ways used to discriminate against women, there is the 'Old Boy 's Network '. The 'Old Boy 's Network ' The term 'Old Boy 's Network ' refers to the system that men in management created in order to look after one another and segregate themselves from female executives and other workers (Dusky, 1992). The Old Boy 's Network is seeded so deeply within the culture of a corporation, at first glance, it is difficult to see. It usually starts out in a simple and innocent form such as an invitation to play golf, racquetball, or other traditional activities. It sounds harmless enough, but the problem lies in the fact that women are excluded. With these artificially created opportunities to engage in the infamous male bonding, the younger male management members have an unsurmountable advantage during promotion time over their female co-workers (Dusky, 1992). Females have to work double-time to achieve the same amount of contacts and have to "start from scratch and prove yourself as if you 're brand new every time" when dealing with the decision makers (Dusky, 1992). Furthermore, women are expected to act as one of the guys while amongst their male counterparts. They are supposed to laugh at all the sexist jokes and endure the naked calendar girls plastered on computer screens. One example of how women have had to endure the Old Boy 's Network in order to achieve success in the upper ranks of management is that of Michele Hooper who is the head of Baxter International Inc 's. Canadian unit and how she handled these conflicts. Being both black and a woman she had to endure some rather tasteless jokes along her
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ascent to the top. As her friends and co-workers put it,"she just laughs it off" (Flynn, 1992). No doubt that some of these jokes are very offensive to Hooper, but she grins and bears it in the pursuit of success. One must also question how this Old Boy 's Network affects the effectiveness of the female executive. If a talented woman climbs her way to the top of the corporation and then, is forced to bite her tongue on some important issue because it might offend one of the men, doesn 't this limit her performance? Conversely, if she becomes audible with her grievance, doesn 't she run the risk of having her male executive counterpart run back to his golfing buddy, Mr President, to complain? With the current recession acting as an excuse to expunge trouble makers, the female executive has to be even more cautious, thus reducing her overall effectiveness. With all of the publicity over the glass ceiling issue in Corporate America, the Department of Labor decided to intervene. The Office of the Federal Contract Compliance Programme During the fall of 1989, The Department of Labor set out to investigate the glass ceiling dilemma, the causes, and the possible remedies (The Government 's View on the "Glass Ceiling", 1991). Additionally, the Office of the Federal Contract Compliance Program (OFCCP) created a glass ceiling commission which commenced a nine corporation study in order to determine what, if any, discrepancies occurred in glass ceiling related issues regarding pay and promotion (Dominguez, 1991). The OFCCP 's main goal is to ensure that government contractors and subcontractors are not engaging in any discriminatory employment practices (Dominguez, 1991, 1992). The following results of the nine corporation study were released by Secretary of Labor Martin on August 8, 1991 and determined that: * * * There was a glass ceiling. There was a lack of corporate strategy involving equal employment opportunity practices. There was a lack of monitoring total compensation systems that determine salaries, bonuses, incentives, and perks. Women were predominantly found in staff rather than in line positions with more of a career path. Each company had different methods of executive training. Internal and external corporate recruitment practices prevented qualified women from management positions (Dominguez, 1992).
With the Department of Labor 's findings in the nine company survey, the question regarding whether the glass ceiling exists because of discrimination had been answered. Because of this discriminatory behaviour in Corporate America, the level of economic output, as well as efficiency, has fallen behind where it should be had the glass ceiling been eliminated (Stuart, 1992). Now that it has been determined that the glass ceiling exists, what agencies have been set up to assist in diversifying the executive work force? The Department of Labor As previously discussed, Secretary of Labor Martin conducted a nine corporation study which determined that the glass ceiling existed. As a result, Martin unveiled plans to investigate federal contractors and subcontractors to ensure that no discriminatory hiring, pay, and promotion practices were evident (Garland, 1991). Additionally, she announced the following comprehensive programme to dismantle the glass ceiling in Corporate America (Dominguez, 1991, 1992): * Corporations will be encouraged to develop their own strategy, based on their own corporate culture in order to allow all employees to reach their highest potential. The OFCCP will continue to monitor how corporations are faring. They have 12 more companies involved in a current study. Their comprehensive procedural guidelines that they use in their studies will be made available to corporations to enable them to understand what they are looking for. Talks will continue with different groups in order to obtain different views to improve their approach. Educational campaigns being implemented will increase public awareness.
*
*
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With this programme in place, there is encouragement for women in the future. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 The Civil Rights Act of 1991 was designed to give women the ability to sue for punitive damages in discrimination cases and to create the Glass Ceiling Commission (Dominguez, 1992; Saltzman, 1991; Dusky, 1992). Additionally, the Civil Rights Act created the Glass Ceiling Commission to address and study the issues as a complement to the work of the OFCCP (Dominguez, 1991,1992). With much debate and a great deal of political manoeuvering, the Civil Rights Act of 1991 was finally signed. With its signing, the door was opened for women to sue for punitive damages. Both the Glass Ceiling Commission and the
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Department of Labor have initiatied steps to combat practices associated with the glass ceiling practices, but, have these steps resulted in positive strides for women? Recent developments Being that these developments with respect to glass ceilings are so recent, it is difficult to ascertain the effectiveness of these new programmes. Some of the strategies and requirements the federal government is addressing attacks at the very core of some corporate cultures. As we know, culture is one of the slowest things to change. Reviewing the effectiveness from a purely statistical point of view, it appears that change was in the air before all of the acts and requirements were finalised. For example, between the years of 1981 and 1991, the percentage of female managers soared from fourteen percent to forty-one percent. Also, the percentage of female senior executives jumped from one percent to three percent (Segal, 1992). While these numbers are very pleasing in regards to the increase of women in management positions, most women view the increase as slow and want to see more proportionate results in top level management positions. A study conducted by Louis Harris & Associates Inc. for Business Week in 1992 showed that there were indeed changes in the hiring and promoting of women, but the changes were small. Nevertheless, the women surveyed were asked if they believed that larger companies were faring better in the hiring and promoting of female executives. Sixty-four percent of the respondents believed that the larger companies were, at least, somewhat better than five years ago (Segal and Zellner, 1992). This is a good indication that these outside pressures, acts, and regulations are impacting Corporate America, but how do women feel about future prospects? A female perspective Even before the OFCCP began its landmark study and the Civil Rights Act of 1991 was passed, women were gaining influence in the upper echelons of management. It was a slow, tedious process, but was at least improving. Now, with the lights brightly focused on the issue, women expect to see improvements more rapidly than in the past. As previously stated, the numbers of women entering the work force have been increasing along with women 's expectations regarding the current developments, but there are certain potential concerns of which women managers must be made aware. First, there could be a possible backlash against the new managers. Many members of the Old Boy 's Network, as well as those who are aspiring to join this club may resent the fact that pressure had to be applied so that women would be included. Sentiments such as taking a man 's job away from him when he has a family may tend to further strain working relationships, thus limiting the effectiveness of
the new management. Secondly, a new female manager must be concerned with being offered the "token" position. For some women, this "token" position may be acceptable because of the pay increase or other benefits received, but the truly talented executive desires to merely work hard and do his or her job the best he or she can. A token position with no responsibilities would be disastrous for this worker profile. We see potential, future problems that women may face, but how do men feel about the future? A male perspective While looking for a job as a reporter, Clint Williams was told he was qualified for the job but the interviewer told him he was sorry, but he just couldn 't hire him. "In effect," said Williams, "I was told it was too bad you 're a white male" (Solomon, 1991). While this is a case of a lower level employee, it is still pertinent to the upper management of a corporation. With the new requirements to which corporations must adhere, the higher level positions will one day be thrust into a position quite similar to this one. Eventually, we may see reverse discrimination law suits as the pendulum swings away to the other side. This will probably not be due to the fact that a woman had to be put in higher position, but rather it will more than likely result from the male feeling shunned and slighted when a more talented female has been chosen for the job. After all, he has a family to support. But how does management perceive these changes? Organisational perspectives Management 's concern with the new trend of having to comply with the government in their hiring, pay, and promotion policies has to do with the company structure and culture. With regards to the company 's culture, management fears that increased interference from government may not take into consideration the fact that every company has a different culture. Ronnie Miller- Haday, vice president for personnel at PepsiCo Inc., says, "We try to explain as best we can what the organisation is like and how things work, [but] it 's hard to say whether they understand it" (Garland, 1991). Since the cultures of corporations vary greatly, it makes the task of the government to set guidelines difficult. For instance, suppose one company values experienced workers in a foreign market. The promotion desired, then, would be to an overseas assignment to be groomed for a senior executive job. On the other hand, a different company might not share the same views on the importance of international experience. The question, then, is where does the government set the guidelines with regard to promotions in overseas operations? We can see that corporations do have legitimate concerns with regard to how and where the guidelines will be set.
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Managers are balking at both cultural and structural concerns. They are adamantly opposed to having the culture or the structure of the company tampered with in the name of reform. As Susan Meisinger, lobbyist for the Society of Human Resource Management, stated "There 's a fine line between the government telling you that you have a glass-ceiling violation and telling you how to manage your business" (Garland and Driscoll, 1991). But how do political considerations fare? A Political Perspective The government 's view on the whole issue of the glass ceiling varies from office to office and from politician to politician. Obviously, the more conservative an individual, there is a greater probability that he or she will prefer a laissez faire approach involving the government 's dealing with businesses. The more liberal an individual, the greater the likelihood that he or she will support the new restrictions that will be levied upon businesses. According to Garland (1991), Bush had threatened to veto the civil rights bill that would have made it easier for women to pursue discrimination cases in court. Bush allowed the act to pass in 1991. The problem the White House was having with the bill was that it would allow women to seek punitive damages in discrimination cases. Additionally, there was concern as to how the glass ceiling initiative would be interpreted and what kind of enforcement effort would be required (Saltzman, 1991). Hence, Bush 's hesitation to sign the bill. Changes on the Horizon Is it possible to dismantle the years of discriminatory practices? The answer, of course, is yes. It will take a long time - a very long time - but it can be accomplished. As has been previously discussed, incredible strides have been made just within the last decade. Now, some of the skeptics will say that this kind of harmonious work place can never be achieved, that discrimination is just a way of life. They will also say that there is no way around the Old Boy 's Network or any way to break the glass ceiling. All these people need to do to quiet their negativity is to look at the developments within the last five years. Some of the trends the studies depicted should serve as inspiration to the coming decades. Just because we seem to be headed in the right direction is not to say that the progress is acceptable and that we can become complacent. To the contrary, there is hard work ahead. The OFCCP, the Glass Ceiling Commission and the Department of Labor have set out some strategies for this issue (Dominguez, 1991). Those strategies were listed in some of the previous sections. But, there are more ways to achieve breaking the glass ceiling
Moving from governmental actions to break the glass ceiling to internal actions that companies may implement to assist women breaking through, we focus our attention to a study conducted by Dee Soder (1992) that included some of the following suggestions from women who broke through the barrier. * Use task forces and internal reviews frequently to provide valuable information. Entry channels should not have artificial barriers precluding women and minorities. Assemble a resume that best shows experience since women and minorities may have non-traditional backgrounds. Establish a goal for employing women and minorities. Open training and development programmes to women and minorities at all levels. Don 't hold functions at all male or all white clubs as this could prove embarrassing at best. Take the same risk on a woman or a minority that you would take on a white man. Career moves should not be viewed as developmental for males, but a risk for females. Performance evaluations should be carefully reviewed to protect against unintentional discriminatory wording or biases.
* *
*
*
*
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Monitoring and early intervention programmes should be put in place. * On the lower levels, have group training programmes on "cultural diversity" and "raising awareness". Try to implement a monitoring programme where the executive meets with employees with high potential to help further their career.
*
With corporations implementing these type of ideas, coupled with a certain amount of government regulation, increased numbers of women and minorities in upper management will probably result. Also, it is hopeful that the levels of pay will eventually balance. This, of course, relies on the fact that the government continues to be a factor, but not to the extent where there is a real backlash in the business sector. If the government gets too involved in hiring practices, then we may see corporations, along with their large sacks of cash heading to the lobbyists ' offices to see if their money can somehow turn the situation around.
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Summary The table is being set for the equality of women in the work place. While there are still many obstacles remaining, the foundations have been laid to see the creativity and resourcefulness of women and minorities in the work force. As Chemed Corporation 's President Timothy O 'Toole so eloquently stated, "What you want is a company that doesn 't see its managers as men or women. It sees them as good managers." (Gleason, 1992). While this attitude may be a rarity today, perhaps it will not be uncommon tomorrow.
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References Brooks, N.
(1993, June 30). "Gender pay gap found at top in US Corporations." Los Angeles Times, pp. A1, A5. Bullard, A.M. & Wright, D.S. (1993, May/June). "The glass ceiling." Public Administration Review, 53, pp.189-201. Dominguez, C.M. (1992, Winter). "Executive Forum -The glass ceiling: paradoxes and promises." Human Resource Management, 31, pp.385-392. Dominguez, C.M. (1991, November). "The glass ceiling and workforce 2000." Labor Law Journal, pp.715-717. Dusky, L (1992, February). "The new old boy network." Glamour, pp.162, 197-199. "Few women found in top public jobs." (1992, January 3). New York Times, p.A12. Flynn, J. (1992, June 8). "Mapping out home care." Business Week, p.82. Garland, S. (1991, August 19). "Throwing stones at the 'glass ceiling '." Business Week, p.29. Garland, S.B. & Driscoll, L. (1991, April 29). "Can the Feds bust through the 'glass ceiling '?" Business Week, p.33. "Gender gap in incentive pay." (1992, November 2). Fortune, pp. 14-15. Gleason, M. (1992, September 14-20). 'The view gets better." Cincinnati Business Courier, p.1. "The Government 's view on the 'glass ceiling '." (1991, November). Personnel Journal. p.28. Hubler, S. & Silverstein, S. (1992, December 29). "Women pay in state lags 31 % behind men 's." Los Angeles Times. p.A1. Landler, M. (1992, June 8). "Through the glass ceiling." Business Week. p.78. Marcial, G.G. (1992, June 8). "Very fancy returns." Business Week. p.83. Saltzman, A. (1991, June 17). "Trouble at the top." US News & World Report. pp.40-48. Schine, E. (1992, June 8). "Barbie is her best friend." Business Week. p.80. Segal, A.T. & Zellner, W. (1992, June 8). "Corporate women." Business Week. pp.74-78. Soder, D. (1992, January/February). "Glass ceiling: raising the roof." The Corporate Board.
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Solomon, C. (1991, November). "Are white males being left out?" Personnel Journal. pp.88-94. Stuart, P. (1992, November). "What does the glass ceiling cost you?" Personnel Journal. pp.77-80. Walters, L.S. (1992, February 14). "Report says US stints women 's half of economy." The Christian Science Monitor. p.8. Wentling, R.M. (1993, April 5). "Women managers: room at the top?" Industry Week. pp.58-61.