Theory

Content: A. Behaviorist perspective

1. Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner 2. Neo-Behaviorism: Tolmann and Bandura

B. Cognitive Perspective

1. Gestalt Psychology 2. Bruner’s constructivist Theory 3. Bruner’s constructivist theory 4. Ausebel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning / Subsumption Theory

Prepared by: Nemarose Jane Tauyan

Behaviorism: Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner

Pavlov (1849 - 1936)
For most people, the name "Pavlov" rings a bell (pun intended). The Russian physiologist is best known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell.
Pavlov's Experiment * Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response from the dog. Placing food in front of the dog initiated salivation. * During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. * After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced salivation.
Stimulus and Response Items of Pavlov's Experiment Food | Unconditioned Stimulus | Salivation | Unconditioned Response (natural, not learned) | Bell | Conditioned Stimulus | Salivation | Conditioned Response (to bell) |
Thorndike (1874 - 1949)
Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response. * The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. * The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. * The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.
Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (Saettler, 1990).
Skinner (1904 - 1990)
Like Pavlov, and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994).
Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).
Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning
Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms * Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.) * Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work.) * Extinction or Non-Reinforcement: Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.) * Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)
Neo-Behaviorism: Tolmann and Bandura
Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive Behaviorism:
- it is also been referred to as Sign Learning Theory and is often unite between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive process. Learning involves forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior.

Tolman’s Key Concept * Learning is always purposive and goal- directed * Cognitive Map * Latent Learning * The concept of interesting variable * Reinforcement not essential for learning

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

1. Learn by observing. 2. Learning can occur through observation alone, without a change in behavior. 3. Cognition plays a role in learning. 4. Transition between behaviorism and cognitive learning theory.

Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of Reinforcement and Punishment

1. Contemporary Theory purposes that reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. 2. Reinforcement and Punishment influence the result of individuals’ behavior that has been learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes.