mangerial communication

Managerial Communication

12MBA16

MODULE 1
Introduction: Role of communication – defining and classifying communication – purpose of communication – process of communication – characteristics of successful communication – importance of communication in management – communication structure in organization – communication in crisis. Communication and negotiation. Communication in cross cultural setting.

MODULE 2
Oral communication: Meaning – principles of successful oral communication – barriers to communication – conversation control – reflection and empathy: two sides of effective oral communication – listening as a communication skill – non – verbal communication-Mode of oral communication. MODULE 3
Written communication: Purpose of writing – clarity in writing – principles of effective writing – approaching the writing process systematically: The 3X3 writing process for business communication:
Pre writing – Writing –Revising – Specific writing features – coherence – electronic writing process.

MODULE 4
Business letters and reports: Introduction to business letters –Type of Business letters- writing routine and persuasive letters – positive and negative messages- writing memos –writing reportspurpose, kinds and objectives of reports- organization and preparing reports- short and long reportswriting proposals-structure and preparation.

MODULE 5
Case method of learning: Understanding the case method of learning –different types of cases – overcoming the difficulties of the case method –reading a case properly (previewing, skimming, reading, scanning) – case analysis approaches (systems, Behavioural, decision, strategy) – analyzing the case – dos and don’ts for case preparation

MODULE 6
Presentation skills: What is a presentation – elements of presentation – designing and delivering presentation. Advanced visual support for managers
Negotiations skills: What is a negotiation – nature and need for negotiation –factors affecting negotiation – stages of negotiation process – negotiation strategies
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MODULE 7
Employment communication: Introduction – writing CVs – Group discussions – interview skillscomposing application message-Impact of Technological Advancement on Business Communicationtechnology enabled communication-Communication networks – Intranet – Internet – e mails – SMS – teleconferencing – videoconferencing

MODULE 8
Group communication: Meetings – Planning meetings – objectives- participants – timing – venue of meetings – leading meetings-meeting documentation-notice-agenda-resolution and minutes-Seminarsworkshop-conferences-Media management – the press release- press conference – media interviewsEtiquettes advantage in business communication

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Index
Modules

Page Numbers

1

3-12

2

13-18

3

19-28

4

29-38

5

39-51

6

52-64

7
8

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Module 1
Introduction:
Meaning and definition :The word communication is derived from communis (Latin) meaning common .It stands for natural activity of all human beings to convey opinions
,feeling ,information ,and ideas to others through words (written or spoken) ,body language or signs .
PURPOSE OF COMMUNICATION
In business we communicate toInform
Persuade
1. Communication to inform
Communication to inform (expository communication) is directed by the desire to expose, develop, and explain the subject. It focuses on the subject of the communication.
2. Communication to Persuade
Communication is a deliberated and intentional act of persuasion. A persuasive communicator wants the reader to understand the message and to be influenced, as intended by him.
PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication was considered a one –way process marked by the flow of information from a sender to receiver

Sender

Message

Media

Message

Receiver

Action

According to the linear view, a receiver passively receives the message and act as directed or desired by the sender. Communication is intended to control/manipulate the receiver. It is assumed that the message, while passing through the medium chosen by the sender, reaches the receiver without any distortion.
Shannon- Weaver Model
C E Shannon and W Weaver were the first to point out that in actual practice; message can be changed or blocked
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Two-Way Communication Process
A group of people are involved to complete the cycle of communication, in which the receiver also acts as the sender of the feedback to transmitter (sender). Thus, both the sender and receiver play reciprocal and reversible roles.
The two-way concept is more contemporary. It considers communication essentially to be a reciprocal process and mutual exchange of messages.
The two- way concept involves receiver as an active agent in the construction of meaning of the message.
Message

Transmitter

Receiver

Communication channel Communication
Symbols

Flow of communication
The message is as the receiver/perceiver it, in the light of his/her experiences, beliefs, and feelings. The two ways communication is also known as transactional communication.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
The various elements of communication are
Message It is information, written or spoken, which is to be sent from one person to another
The most important characteristic of a message as an element of communication is that it is organized, structured, shaped, and selective.
Sender
The person who transmits, spreads, or communicates a message or operates an electronics device is the one who conceives and initiates the message with the purpose of informing/ persuading /influencing /changing the attitude, opinion, or behaviour of the receiver. Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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Encoding Means putting ideas, facts, feelings, and opinions into symbols, which can be words, actions, signs, pictures, and audio-visuals. The communication symbols are used/ selected by the sender, keeping in mind the receiver’s ability to understand and interpret them correctly. Channel This is the vehicle or medium which facilitates the sender to convey the message to the receiver. The medium of communication can be written, oral, audio-visual, or live projections. The written medium can be in the form of letters, memos, reports, manuals, notices, circulars, questionnaires, minutes, and so on.
The oral medium can be in the form of a dialogue, a face-to-face interview, a telephone conversation, a conference recording. The channel can be visuals, such as hoardings, posters, slides, documentary films, television programmers, and advertisements.
Receiver A receiver is the targeted audience of the message. The receiver gets the message, understands, interprets, and tries to perceive the total meaning of the message as transmitted by the sender.
Decoding
meanings.

This is the act of translating symbols of communication into their ordinary

Acting
Communication manipulates the receiver to act in a desired manner. A receiver’s response action shows that he has understood the message. Finally, the receiver completes the chain of communication by responding to the message.
Feedback This is the loop that connects the receiver in the communication process with the sender, who, in turn, acts as a feedback receiver and, thus, gets to know that communication has been accomplished. Feedback plays an important role. It helps the communicator know if there are any corrections or changes to be made in the proposed action. It also ensures that the receiver has received the message and understood it as intended by the sender.
In management, the decision-making process is greatly helped by receiving feedback from those who are directly connected with any changes proposed or effected and communicated to them. The process of feedback assures the initiator of the action about its correctness and possible impact.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL COMMUNICATION
Seven Cs of communication
Francis J Bergin advocates that there are seven Cs to remember in verbal communication.
These are equally applicable to written communication. They are

1. Candidness
2. Clarity
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3. Completeness
4. Conciseness
5. Concreteness
6. Correctness
7. Courtesy
1. Candidness In all business transaction, our view of a matter should be honest, sincere, and guileless. We should speak and listen without prejudice or bias. Our guiding principle should be fairness to self and to others involved in the situation. Candidness, in a way, implies consideration of the other person’s interest and his/her need to know things objectively and fairly. We should share our thoughts without reservation in an unbiased manner.
2. Clarity The principle of clarity is most important in all communications, especially when you are involved in face-to-face interaction.
To ensure that we express ourselves clearly, we should use accurate and familiar words with proper intonation, stress, and pauses. Our spoken language should be clear and wellorganized.
3. Completeness Clarity is ensured also by completeness of message. It is, therefore, essential that oral presentations, discussions, or dialogues should be as far as possible, planned, and structured. When we begin the presentation we should ensure that we have given all the information that listeners need or expect for understanding the message.
4. Conciseness In business and professional communications, we should be brief and be able to stay whatever we have to say in minimum words. We should avoid being repetitive.
5. Concreteness Concreteness means being specific, definite in describing event and things.
It also means the vivid description of an event or state. Avoid using vague words. We can choose precise words and speak proper modulation and force to make their sound reflect the sense. Active voice verbs reflect force and action.
6. Correctness In the spoken form of communication, grammatical errors are not uncommon.
The speaker tends to forget the number and person of the subject of the verb if the sentence is too long. Sometimes even the sequence of tense is wrong. And most frequently the use of the pronouns is incorrect especially in indirect narration.
Wrong: He said to me that I will surely go there.
Correct: He told me that he would surely go there.
7. Courtesy In conversational situations, meetings, and group discussions, an effective speaker maintains the proper decorum of speaking. Courtesy demands that we do not use words that are insulting or hurtful to the listener.
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In business discussion, it is necessary that we respect the other person by listening to him/her patiently. We should not interrupt. We should wait for our chance to speak and when it is our turn to speak, we should speak force and clarity.
Our tone should reflect our respect for our listener/ audience. And our pitch should not sound as if we are talking at each other and not to each other. The tone we use in conversation should not be aggressive. It should be level and measured as it can make or break our discussion. IMPORTANCE FOR COMMUNICATION IN MANAGEMENT
Every organization needs an effective communication system to enable it to function and flourish. In an organization, communication is a meansTo increase employees' job performance and effectiveness by updating their knowledge. To promote employees’ sense of belonging and commitment.
To effect changes smoothly.
To motivate and create a sense of identification with the organization’s goals.
To inform and convince employees about decisions and the reasons behind those decisions. To develop employees’ clear understanding of their roles and future growth opportunities in the organization, and
To empower employees with information on development and activities.
Hence, an active communication system is vital for the good health of an organization. If there is a continuous sharing of ideas and interactive meetings between the management and workers, the overall atmosphere of understanding and goodwill would prevail in the workplace. If decision- making is transparent, employees would understand reasons for those decisions and accept and implement them even if they affect them adversely. The following three advantages re-emphasis the need for communication management:
Create a sense of belonging An understanding of their roles and career paths in the organization would make employees feel part of the whole setup.
Resolve disputes All disputes in organization, which lead to huge losses of time, money, and good human relations, are caused by communication failures.
Develops sense of total situation A great value of effective communication lies in making people not only know and understand but also perceive the meaning of things happening around them.

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COMMUNICATION STRUCTURE IN AN ORGANISATION
In business organizations, the effectiveness of a communication system depends upon the extent to which the necessary information reaches the concerned person at the right time.
This network of information supports the overall functioning of management by integrating and coordinating the work force for achieving organizational objectives.
Hence, every organization creates a network for information to pass through its different levels of authority and functional heads and units. The flow of communication follows the structure of the organization. In actual practice, the information passes through the organizational pyramid as shown

Board of directors

Managing
Director

Senior management
Middle level management
Senior supervisors
First-line supervisors
Employees/Shop-floor employees

Vertical Communication
In organizations there are well-defined lines/routes for passing on communication. At the boardroom level, policy decisions are taken. From there, downward information and instructions are sent to senior manager or a group of senior managers. They ensures that the policy decision are easily understood, implemented, sustained, monitored, reviewed, and reported as feedback.
When an organization has too many hierarchical levels managers faces a lot of difficulty to reach the ground level employees and shop- floor employees. In all such situations, communication tends to be slow in reaching and delayed in getting absorbed and acted upon.
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Horizontal Communication
Also known as peer communication, it is usually needed within the organization in relation to the following cases:
Geographical location of divisions
Functional basis of division
Geographical organization
Divisions such as Research and Development Division, Total Quality Control Division, and so on. Each of these divisions keeps in close contact with each other through seminars, presentations, and executive meetings. These divisions communicate among themselves to share information and help each other as equal members of the same organization.
Communication is, therefore, essential to sustain among organizational division the sense of unity as parts of a single organization.
Functional organization Normally business and industrial organizations form divisions on the basis of different functions, such as production, marketing, finance, personnel and training, and development. All such divisions function independently and yet remain linked with each other through peer-group communication and work-flow information.
The chain of work- flow in an industry can be steadily managed only through horizontal communication between the sections that are directly interlinked.
MAJOR DIFFICULTIES IN COMMUNICATION
The following are the main difficulties usually experienced by communicators:
Ensuring that the received meaning affects receiver’s behavior in the desired way.
Achieving accuracy in communicating the message.
Ensuring that the message conveys the desired meaning.
COMMON PROBLEMS IN TWO-WAY COMMUNICATION
To be effective, communication process needs to be two-way; but, the more detailed the process is, the more are the likely difficulties. Some of the common problems related to twoway communication:
No perceived benefit to the audience.
Noise, outside disturbance- hard to hold attention.
Variation in listening skills.
Cultural differences.
Complexity of subject matter/message.
Time restrains-real or perceived.
Personal biases, hostility, or both.

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Responding to difficult questions.
Sidestepping sensitive issues.
BARRIER TO COMMUNICATION
Barrier implies, mainly, something non-physical that keeps people apart or prevents activity, movement, and so on. For example social/ethnic/language barriers or lack of confidence.
These negative forces may affect the effectiveness of communication by acting upon any or all of the basic elements of communication act/ process and the sender/ receiver/ channel.
The commonly experienced barriers to communication areNoise
Lack of planning
Wrong/ unclarified assumptions
Semantic problems
Cultural barriers
Social-psychological barriers
Emotions
Selective perception
Filtering
Information overload
Loss by transmission
Poor retention
Poor listening
Goal conflict
Offensive style
Time and distance
Abstracting
Slanting
Inferring
Broadly speaking, some of these barriers can be attributed to the sender and the receiver
SenderLack of planning
Vagueness about the purpose of communication
Objectives to be achieved
Choice of wrong language resulting in badly encoded message
Unshared and unclarified assumptions
Different perception of reality
Wrong choice of the channel
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ReceiverPoor listening
Inattention
Mistrust
Lack of interest
Premature evaluation
Semantic difficulties
B ia s
Different perception of reality
Lack of trust
Attitudinal clash with the sender
Not in a physical state
A common barrier for the sender and the receiver can be created by the absence of a common frame of reference affecting the smooth interpretation of thoughts, feelings, and attitudes from the sender to the receiver in a specific social situation.

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Module 2
Oral communication
Oral communication, also known as verbal communication, is the interchange of verbal messages between sender and receiver. It is more immediate than written communication. It is also more natural and informal.
Objectives for learning oral communication skill
 To help problem solving
 To resolve conflict
 To influence people to work together
 To persuade others to be involved in organizational goals
 To be assertive without being aggressive
 To develop listening skills
 To be an effective negotiator
 To make a proposal
Principle of successful oral communication
Oral communication is indispensable in any group or business activity. The purpose of effective talking is to be heard and understood by the listener.
1. Our communication should, first of all, have the rhythm and tone of a living voice. To achieve this quality we should use the language that is free from long winding sentences.
2. Our language should have the ease of commonly used words, and short and simple sentences. 3. The tone should be marked by the accent of sincerity and confidence.
4. An effective speaker uses his tone and body language to support the message communicated by words.
5. There should be a due correlation between the pace of speaking and the rate of listening.
Research has established that an individual speaks nearly 125 words a minute and the brain of the listener process nearly 4-5 times more rapidly. If the natural gap between the processes of receiving and registering is widened or too narrowly shortened by the speaker’s pace of speaking, the act of comprehension will tend to be adversely affected. Hence, an important principle of oral communication is to speak fluently, without long pauses or non-stop rushing through words.
6. Fluency usually means ease as a condition of speaking. But a fluent speaker is one who is heard with ease. The listener does not have to strain his mind to receive, register, and interpret the message heard .Listening is activated and helped when the speaker delivers his
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words as if they are moving in an ordered procession. Each word is distinctly heard and easily connected with other words to form the verbal structure of the message.
Characteristics of Effective Oral Communication
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Consider the objective.
Think about the interest level of the receiver.
Be sincere.
Use simple language, familiar words.
Be brief and precise.
Avoid vagueness and generalities.
Give full facts.
Assume nothing.
Use polite words and tone.
Cut out insulting message.
Say something interesting and pleasing to the recipient.
Allow time to respond.

Barrier of Effective Oral Communication
Managers have to communicate individually with people at different levels- superiors, subordinates, customers and public figures. The oral mode of communication is easy, time saving, and functionally helpful in resolving issues. But oral communication demands great control and communicative competence to be successful.
The fore most barriers to oral communication is poor listening.
Listening
Listening is a psychological act affected by several factors, such as
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Status
Halo effect
Complexes
Closed all- knowing mind
Poor retention
Premature evaluation and hurried conclusions as distortions
Abstracting
Slant
Cognitive dissonance
Language barrier

Status In organization, there are formal and informal status levels that affect the effectiveness of face-to-face oral communication. A subordinate would generally listen more and speak less while interacting with his/her superior. The exchange of ideas is blocked by difference in the subordinate because of superior position of the speaker.
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Halo effect The awe in which a speaker is held by the listener conditions the act of true listening. If the speaker is greatly trusted and held in high esteem as an honest person, his statements are readily taken as true. Oral communication is thus conditioned by the impression of the listener about the moral eminence of the speaker. Under the halo effect in business, buyers tend to go by the trusted seller’s view of a thing, rather than by their own judgement of the product’s quality.
Complexes A lack of confidence or a sense of superiority may prevent proper oral interaction between persons differently positioned. Sometimes one suffers from a sense of being inferior and, therefore, fails to take initiative or involve himself/herself in conversation/ dialogue or any other form of oral communication.
Closed and all-knowing mind listening, to a large extent, depends on one’s curiosity to know things. Some persons believe that they know everything in a field or a subject. Their minds refuse to receive things from other sources. The closed state of mind acts as a barrier to oral communication, which demands a readiness/ willingness on the part of listener to enter into to a dialogue.
Poor retention In two-way oral communication, the sequence of thought is essential for carrying on communication. To speak coherently one has to remember the sequence of ideas.
In case of poor retention, the listener fails to relate what he hears with what he had heard before. Moreover, if the listener fails to remember the previous discussion, the whole thing is likely to be lost in the absence of any written record.
Premature evaluation and hurried conclusions as distortions
To listen patiently until the speaker completes his/her argument is necessary for correct interpretation of an oral message. These mental processes, during the act of listening, may at times act as a block, affecting the free and fair exchange of meaning.
Abstracting Abstracting is a mental process of evaluation of thought content in terms of relative importance of ideas in the context of the total message. This is possible only on listening to the whole message, and not during the process of discussion.
Abstracting acts as a barrier when a listener approaches a message from a particular point of view focusing his/her attention on some aspect of the conversation or dialogue. The rest of the communication is missed.
Slant is usually attributed to the biased presentation of a matter by speaker. Instead of straight talk, one speaks in an oblique manner that could be almost like telling a lie.
Cognitive dissonance At times the listener fails to accept or respond to assumptions underlying the new information communicated, as he/she is unprepared to change from the old basis of belief and knowledge. In such kinds of discrepancy between the existing assumptions and the actual position communicated, some listeners try to escape from the
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dissonance by interpreting, restructuring or mentally ignoring the oral interchange. Cognitive dissonance interferes with the acceptance of new information as it happens to be.
Language barrier The language of communication should be the medium the medium shared by both speaker and listener. In business, English is most widely used in almost all parts of the world. The facility of conversation in English is essential for executives within a multilingual country like India.
Conversation Control
The art of conversation consists in our ability to listen with concentration and reply well.
Conversation control involves skills of listening and talking in a positive and meaningful way at an appropriate time. It includes Technique of changing the direction of conversation smoothly
 The ability to allow a discussion to develop along key issues in an uninterrupted way towards the desired end.
Conversation control helps us carry on and conclude our conversation effectively on a note of satisfaction as a result of mutual understanding and agreement.
In business, the following situations require application of conversation control skills
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Sell or buy
Negotiate
Interview
Participate in a meeting
Disagree without being rude
Protect without offending Compliment/praise
Respond to personal criticism

The following skills will help your oral communication
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Interacting with people in meetings in a convincing way
Handling objections to a proposal made by you
Being able to react to criticism in a confident manner
Developing skills in interviewing
Learning how to get correct information quickly

Ability to notice cues clues
In oral communication, the listener’s attention to the importance or unimportance is drawn by not only the choice of words, but also by the tone of speaker’s voice or some other signals such as facial expression, eye contact, body movement and gestures. These signals constitute cues and clues to emphasise ideas.
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A cue is a keyword or phrase a person uses when he/she wants to indicate that something is important to him/her.
Similarly, a clue is a word or a set of words that someone else gives to us.
The success of meeting, discussions, lecturing, or oral presentations depends on our picking up the verbal cues and clues.
Sequential Conversation
When we converse in a skilfully controlled way, we make statements that are in sequence to what is said by the other person. There is a logical link between the statements made by the speaker and listener. The listener receives carefully what is being said and waits for his proper chance to join in to say clearly and forcefully what he has to say. But he carries forward the conversation in a connected and sequential form. In this way, within a short time, ideas and thoughts are developed in a structured pattern.
Reflection and Empathy
In oral communication, the most important skill is to impress upon the other person that you are genuinely interested in him/her and his/her statements.
Reflecting on someone’s statements needs to be done most carefully. You must first understanding the underlying feeling exactly and accurately. Then speak in such a manner that the other person feels that you have indeed seen the issue from his/her point of view; this needs very skilful dramatisation of the initial statement. It involves the use of body language to support what words say.
Your body language should show your real interest in him/her. Make eye contact. Lean forward. And speak as a person with genuine feeling of concern for the other person.
Sense of time as a skill
In oral communication, the speaker should always keep in mind the time taken to communicate. The time limits announced in formal oral activities should be strictly observed.
Conversation or presentation should not speak exceed 110-120 words per minute. Meeting should be conducted through lively interaction and controlled shift from issue to issue. In one-to-one conversations/ discussions, the desire should not be to monopolise conversation.
Passive listening generates disinterest and boredom.
In lectures/ seminars/presentations the skill to break monotony is by introducing humorous anecdotes or illustrative cases.
Summarising as an integral skill of oral communication
Summarising is the best form of comprehension of given facts. It is not just repetition of what someone has said. To summarise is to pick out the central thought, the main theme or the
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essential idea at the core of the whole argument. It is a most difficult exercise to do successfully. It is a skill to be able to summarise well and it needs lot of practice.
All the skills of oral communication, whether they relate to your ability to speak personally, face-to-face, or at meetings, depends basically on the key skill of conversation control which enables you to receive and understand the true meaning of words spoken by the other person.
Two sides of Effective Oral Communication- Listening and Presenting
Listening is an important component of conversation control. To be able to understand and appreciate the other person, you should allow him/her to express freely, without being interrupted, and listen carefully.
Characteristic of good Listeners and Poor Listeners
Good listeners

Poor listeners

Do not interrupt

Over- talkative

Remain patient

Inattentive

Make eye contacts

Interrupt

Show interest

Impatient to talk

Look attentive

“Yes, but…” approach

Concentrate

Very critical

Ask open question

Poor concentration
Look away from the person

Be an effective presenter
The other side of oral communication is your ability to present your viewpoint. In order to be an effective presenter try to present facts, not your opinions; keep to the points; keep the listener’s interest in mind; support your argument with suitable examples; and ask for feedback and answer questions honestly. Make eye contact. Avoid being vague, unfocused, with little eye contact, discouraging questions, showing lack of confidence, and not getting to the point.

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Module 3
Written communication
PURPOSE OF WRITING
The first task for writing effectively is to identify the purpose the communication. There are mainly two purposes of communication in business situations- to inform and to persuade.
Writing to inform
When the writer seeks to give information and offers to explain it, the writing is called informative writing. It is also called expository writing because it expounds or expresses ideas and facts. The focus of informative writing is on the subject or the matter under discussion. Informative writing is found in accounts of facts, scientific data, statistics, and technical and business reports.
Informative writing presents information not opinions. Its purpose is to inform (educate) and not persuade.
The purpose of the writer is to inform is to inform a reader objectively, with little bias. The information is logically arranged.
Informative writing- A checklist
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It focus on the subject under discussion
It primarily inform rather than persuade the reader
It offer complete and exact information
The information be ascertained
It present information logically and clearly
It make good reading

Writing to persuade
Persuasive writing aims at convincing the reader about a matter which is debatable; it expresses opinion rather than facts. This why the writing is also called argumentative, for it supports and argues a certain viewpoint or position. The matter has two or more sides to it.
But the writer seeks to influence and convince the reader to accept the position put forth.
Persuasive writing focuses on the reader. The writer attempts to change the reader’s thinking, and bring it closer to his own way of thinking. Persuasive writing is found opinion essays, editorials, and letter to the editors, business/ research proposals, religious books, reviews, or literature belonging to a certain political party or social philosophy.

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Persuasive writing does more than just state an opinion. For that is not enough. The opinion must be convincing. There has to be supporting evidence or facts to back the opinion or point of view.

Persuasive writing- A checklist
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It focus on the reader
It basically seek to convince rather than inform
It support its viewpoint by giving information or valid reasons
It clearly follow a logical arrangement of thought and reasoning
It finally evoke the intended response from the reader

CLARITY IN WRITING
Writer has to follow the principles of unity and coherence that binds words into sentences, sentences into units or paragraphs, and paragraphs into essays. Whenever this information of thought into language is not effected under the guiding principles of language, the muddy clutter hides the meaning and makes it difficult to understand.
Although the letter is the most common means of written communication, we frequently overlook its importance. We dictate or write down a few words in the hope that someone will get the message. We bury the message under a mountain of unnecessary words; or we adopt an unnatural style that conceals our real intention and robs the message of its true purpose. Instead of letting our business letters be friendly, interesting, and persuasive, we are being businesslike
PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITING
Effectiveness of written communication is achieved by following the principles of
 Accuracy
 Brevity
 Clarity
Accuracy
To be accurate you should check and double check all information forFacts, figures, and words
Language and tone
Correctness of words Check the choice of words for correct usage.
Whether a communication is formal or informal, we should always write “between you and me” and not “between you and I”. In this case, the choice is simple as it is guided by the grammatically rule of the objective case of pronoun used after between”

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Technical Accuracy of Language
A message should be communicated correctly in terms of grammar, punctuation, and spellings. Rules of grammar
1.
2.
3.
4.

Concord – the rule of agreement between words in gender, number, case, or person
Dangling modifier
Unnecessary shift in tense
Prepositions

Pay attention to punctuation marks.
Checks words for spelling and usage

Concord
When two subjects are joined by ‘either- or’; ‘neither- nor’; not only- but also, the verb agrees in number with its nearest subjects.
Either she or her brothers are coming.
Neither the father nor the mother knows him.
Not only the students but also the teachers deserve praises.
The rule –
If both subjects are singular, the verb will be singular.
If one subject is singular and the other plural, the verb will be plural and the plural subject shall be placed near the plural verb.
‘One of’ as subject
If ‘one of’ followed by a plural noun, is the subject, the verb is singular so that it agrees with
‘one’
When ‘there’ is used as a subject, the verb agrees in number with its real subject that comes after it.
There is no chance of getting late.
There are fifty students in my class.
‘A number of’ means several or many. Hence, it always takes a plural verb.
There have been a number of railway accidents in this year.
A number of tress has fallen in the parks.
‘It’ as an introductory subject
Dangling Modifier
A dangling modifier, as the phrase suggests, is a word or phrase that modifies a word not clearly mentioned in the sentence.
1. Dangling modifiers are generally used at the beginning of the sentences. Sometimes, they occur at the end, as well.
2. Dangling modifiers begin with either a present participle or past participle
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Dangling modifier- Expecting a big audience, a large number of chairs were ordered.
Dangling modifiers – Having arrived late for class, a written apology was demanded
Unnecessary shift in tenses He usually makes sensible moves although he often changed his mind.
Tense should be consistent within the sentence and from sentence to sentence within the paragraph. Prepositions Wrong prepositions change the meaning of the statement.
There are no rules for correct prepositions. They are governed by usage. Some guidelines for using correct prepositions are given below:
1. Express of time
2. Expression of place
To Express Time
1. At denotes a specific moment or point in time. It is used for a certain moment or point in time. The meetings begin at 3:00 P.M.
She got up at dawn and left at seven o’clock.
But for festivals which mark a certain point in the year, use for the office has a holiday for
Diwali and Holi
2. ‘On‘is used for a particular day when it is mentioned as a day of the week.
‘On’ is also used for a specific part of any such days. (On Diwali night, on Friday morning, in the summer break, in the morning, in the evening, in the daytime)
3. ‘In’ is used also to show the total period of time needed to complete some activity on action. ‘In’ used for a future period of time at the end of which, something will happen.
I shall complete my work in a few minutes.
She will come back in an hour.
Note- ‘In’ is used with the future tense, not the past tense.
She will come back after an hour, is wrong.
‘In’ means at the end of the specified period of time.
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With the past tense, we should use ‘after’ to denote a period of time taken for completing an operation/ activity.
To Express Place some happening.

We often get confused while using ‘at’ ‘in’ or ‘on’ to indicate place of

1. In Place of Living like towns, cities, villages, countries use ‘in’ when the place of residence is mentioned as a general terms, without naming a particular place. The reference is to the kind of place.
2. ‘In’: Used before the names of large places, such as capital cities, large towns, countries, states or districts
I live in Delhi/ in India. But use ‘at’ before villages and smaller towns.
When we refer to a place which is a part of another bigger place, the smaller place takes ‘at’ and the bigger ‘in’
When we are referring to the kind of place, if it is a building use ‘in’– in a bank, in an office, in a shop, in a factory, in a college, in a hotel.
If the workplace is not a building, use ‘on’.
If a specific place is mentioned, use ‘at’- at the Bhaba Atomic Research Centre, at Station, at the Central Public Library, at the Railway Station, at the Mall.
Punctuation
In English, punctuation matters. It determines the meaning of the sentences and paragraph.
Sometimes even the meaning of a word gets changed by the punctuation mark.
Wrong: The president’s speech was so long, its actual message was lost.
Correct: The president’s speech was so long its actual message was lost.
Wrong: It is necessary to keep practicing ones communication skills
Correct: It is necessary to keep practicing one’s communication skills.
Ones=plural of pronoun like loved ones.
Brevity
Brevity consists in saying only what needs to be said and leaving out unnecessary words or details. Being brief does not mean saying less than what the occasion demands. Brevity is not to be achieved at the cost of clarity. Nor is brevity to be gained by sacrificing proper English.

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To achieve brevity avoid wordiness
1. Do not use four or six words when one or two will do. It is not necessary to qualify one word with another word which basically means the same thing.
Along the lines of- like

In the nature of – like

In the event of –in case

On the basis of –by

For the purpose of –for

In the neighbourhood of –about

For the reason that – since

with a view to-about

In as much as-if

with reference to-about

In the case of –if

with regards to-about

In the event that-if

with the result that-so that

2. Wordiness can also be avoided by changing clauses into phrases
Wordy: She received a shirt which was torn.
Concise: She received a torn shirt
3. Do not over-use the passive voice.
Language and Tone
Standard English The most commonly used and accepted words are those which constitute
“Standard” English, the language of the educated people. It is called “Standard” because it follows the norms laid down by the rules of grammar, sentence construction, punctuation, spelling, paragraph forming, and so on.
Tone
Based on the purpose and audience you are writing for, you have to choose the appropriate tone in terms of formality.
Tone refers to feelings created by words used to communicate a message. In a working environment, the tone of our writing basically depends on the relationship between the writer and those in authority who would receive the message.
Communications in an organisation can be classified as upward, downward, or horizontal. It is the skill and competence of the writer to use the tone according to the direction of communication determined by the status of the reader/ receiver. It is obvious that while writing to our superiors our tone will be quite formal and to our peer, less formal or more informal. Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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Level of Formality
“The level of formality is the tone in writing and reflects the attitude of the writer toward the subject and audience”, says Muriel
The tone can be Informal
 Semi-informal
 Strictly formal
Informal Tone A writer uses informal tone for social or personal communications. It is appropriate for informal writing. The informal tone may use slang, colloquialisms and regional words. For creating the sense of informality, the writer may also include shortened forms and incomplete sentences.
For example The guy was damn annoyed because he couldn’t have a hang of the whole lot of mumbo-jumbo.
Colloquialism
writing.

Colloquialism is the use of words of casual conversation in informal

Some colloquial words are for example-guy for person, ain’t for am is or are not or for have or has not, kids for children, hubby for husband, flunk instead of fail.
Slang Slang consists of very informal words, phrases, or meanings, not regarded as standard and often used by a specific profession, class, and so on.
Slang words, like colloquial words, are not-conventional. They are just coined or given new definitions for sounding novel. They are used in some special sense. But they exclude jargon and dialect words.
Hip for trendy or stylish
Pig out-eat (food) greedily
Slang words, like hype and ad, are gaining wider acceptability among professional speakers and modern writers.
Regional words
Regional words, as the phrase suggests, are used basically in a particular geographic area. They are also known as localism or provincialism. The richness of English is from its openness to words from other areas and countries. Words such as porch, veranda, portico, gherao, hartal, bazaar, bag, sack, tote, or phone form part of spoken and written
English, sometimes as standard usage.
Slang words and regional words constitute the texture of language. They give colour and tone to the language of communication. The main concern is to impress the reader with sincerity, courtesy, and sense of mutual respect, the aim is to write in simple and clear English using
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the language of everyday speech. The basic aim of business writing is to earn the goodwill of the reader. The writing should sound friendly and cooperative.
Semi-formal tone
The semi- formal tone is levelled somewhere between informal and too academic. It is expressed through an approximation to Standard English which is written according to the accepted rules of grammar, punctuation, sentence construction, and spelling with a few contractions which add to the tone a sense of informality.
Strictly formal tone
Strictly formal tone is scholarly and it uses words which are long and not frequently spoken in everyday conversation. The construction of the sentence is also academic and literary.
Positive language For good human relationship, our letters and memos should Accenture the positive and subordinate the negative thoughts and expressions.
 Avoiding using words that underline the negative aspect of the situation.
 Write with a cool frame of mind. Do not write a letter or memo when you are angry or excited.  Do not allow your anger, or harshness to creep into your letters/ memos.
 Focus on the positive whenever you can or project the neutral rather than the negative view point.
Negative-We have received your complaint
Positive-We have received your letter
Revisions- Eliminating the accusing and insulting tone of the original sentences. Substitute the neutral words for words that are insulting or make the reader feel that the writer considers him dishonest or stupid.
Insulting-Don’t allow your carelessness to cause accidents in the blast furnace
Neutral- Be careful when your are working in the blast furnace
You-Attitude
You-attitude is the reader’s point- of- view
Good business writing especially letters, the author writes from the reader’s point of view. He views things as readers would do. Thereby, he is able to see and present the situation, as the reader would see it. As a writer, you should try to convey your understanding of the reader’s position. Author’s emphasis- I congratulate you on successfully accomplishing the task.
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Reader’s emphasis – Congratulation on successfully accomplishing the task.
Guidelines for reflecting ‘you’ point-of-view in business correspondence
Empathise with your reader. Place yourself in his/her position.
Highlight your reader’s positive gain or actions in the situation.
Adopt a pleasant tone as for as possible.
Avoid negative words and images. Do not use words which insult or accuse the reader. 5. Offer some helpful suggestions if possible.
6. Use words which are familiar, clear, and natural. Avoid expressions which are oldfashioned or legalistic.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Natural Language
Letters and memos should be written in the language of everyday speech. It should not be allowed to lose its quality of living speech by bringing in chiches and hackneyed expressions.
Archaic expressions in your letter or memo will make the message dull and uninteresting for the reader.
Examples
Hackneyed

Natural

The understanding….

I/We…

We beg to advise…

We can say…

Attached here to…

Attached is….

Choose Active Voice
Subject is the head word. It normally comes at the opening of the sentence. There are only two parts of a sentence-subject and predicate. Subject is that about which something is said; the predicate is whatever is said about the subject.
ExampleActive- Style describes the product’s look and feel to the buyer.
Passive-The product look and feel are described to the buyer by style.
Some Passive Voice Problems for Readers
Avoid passive voice in issuing instructions
Instructions should be clear, direct and complete. Passive voice instructions may confuse the reader. The instruction may omit the
‘by preposition phrase’ and thereby leave the question about ‘who should do it’ unclear. The doer of the action is left implied, and not clearly stated.
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Dropping ‘by phrase’
Often the writer attempts to shorten the length of the passive sentences by leaving out ‘by phrase’ after the verb. But it creates difficulty for the reader to understand the full process of the action as the sentence does not offer complete information.
Confusing use of dangling modifier
The reader is often confused by the misplaced modifier in the passive construction.
Unclear-Besides saving on mailing expenses, a double-digit response will be achieved by customer-data-bases system.
Clear-Besides saving on mailing expenses, customer-data-bases system will achieve a double-digit response.
Avoid sexist language
You should avoid use of sexiest expression and ideas in business communication. Sexiest language consists of words or phrases, which show a bias against the competence or importance of women. In today’s gender sensitive age, business writing should scrupulously leave out all such words, which lower women’s dignity, competence, and status.
Sexiest- An experienced professor is needed. He should….
Revised- An experienced professor is needed. He/ She should be…
Or The person should be….
Sexiest-The policeman should listen to the common man’s complaints.
Revised-the police officer should listen to the common man’s complaints.

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Module 4
Business letters and reports
Introduction:
Letters and memos are brief pieces of communications. They tend to act upon the receiver’s feeling of thoughts with great immediacy of power.
Letters that please the receiver are called “good news” letters. Those that neither please nor displease but are received with interest are known as “routine” letters. Both follow the same sequence of presentation of ideas. They both follow a deductive pattern, or direct organization of ideas.
Good-news letter
Pleasant news/ideas

Details or explanation

Choosing message/thoughts

Routine letter
Major ideas

Details or explanation

Closing thoughts

The direct organization of ideas in good-news/routine letters follows human psychology. A pleasant or interesting idea will always attract the receiver’s attention. Hence, it can be the opening news given in the very first sentence to be followed by details and the final message.
Routine claim letters
A claim is a demand or request for something which has a right to have. For example, a

refund, payment for damages, replacement, exchange, and so on. A claim letter is, thus, a request for adjustment.
All such requests can be divided into to two kinds- routine claims and persuasive claims.
When a writer thinks that because of guarantees or other specified terms and conditions, the request for adjustment will be automatically granted without delay or without persuasion, he writes the letter in the routine form. When the writers believes that a direct statement of the desired action will get a positive response without arguments, he can use the following sequence/pattern of ideas1. Request action in the opening sentence
2. Give reasons supporting the request/action
3. End with an appreciation for taking the action requested.
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Reply
The writer of the claim letter obviously thought that a routine request for exchange would be granted. He, therefore, stated his claim in the sentence without any complaints. Similarly, the replier to a routine request claim letter knows that the recipient will be glad to know that his request has been granted; he, therefore states it in the first sequence with expression of willingness. The details and closing sentence follow the opening easily.
Guidelines for Writing “No” to a request
Indirect organisation A negative response letter in a business situation, such as a request for replacement or credit or adjustment or return of product, is bound to create unpleasant feeling of disappointment in the reader. Our purpose is to write about the “no” information while producing the minimum disappointment. To achieve the objective, we should pattern the information as given below1. Begin the letter with a paragraph that brings out the general situation as a context in which the reader’s request was considered. Indicate in a neutral or friendly tone the reasons that would lead to a negative information or refusal.
Some of the possible methods Assure the receiver that his/her matter is considered with great understanding and care.  Make the reader believe that it is the circumstances or situation, and not the merit of his /her request that is responsible for the “no” response.
 Agree with the reader in some way (“You are right that the guarantee period is one year…)  Give a sincere compliment
2. Give facts, reasons and factors for refusal
3. In the same paragraph, mention the refusal .it is important not to highlight the refusal
4. The end seeks to maintain good business relations with the reader by suggesting to her/ him an alternative course of action or better deal in future.
The basic purpose of the indirect pattern is to ensure that the reader is left convinced that the refusal is not based on arbitrary, subjective or personal reasons.
Writing a Persuasive Letter
Persuasion is used when we suspect that the reader will not be ordinarily interested in the message and the action to be taken. Most probably, the letter will be ignored. In such situation, writer uses the device of startling the reader by informing him about something unexpected or unknown. The reader is, in this way, at the very opening made to see why he/she should accept the proposal. The letters shows how the reader will be greatly benefited by taking the suggested action. Such letters that arouse readers’ interest and induce them to
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act as directed are essentially letters that sell ideas to others. They are called persuasive letters. The persuasive pattern, also known as persuasive organization, involves the following sequence of ideas1. The opening sentence in the persuasive organization of business letters catches the reader’s attention by saying one of these thingsA starting statement of facts- Every second, 6 children die of malnutrition in our country. 2. The middle section of the persuasive letters gives details of the product; scheme or whatever is being promoted. This section mainly describes the benefits to the reader.
It explains why the reader should accept the proposal.
3. After arousing the reader’s interest in the proposal, request action, such as a “yes” response to the proposed request.
4. The last paragraph acts as a reminder to the reader of the special benefits he/she should gain by accepting to act as urged, and request action within the given deadlines. Writing Memos
Memo is a form used by a person known to the receiver personally. Therefore, it is less formal in tone and without formal elements such as ‘situation’, ‘subscription’, greetings, or even signatures at the end.
How to Write a Memo
A memo begins straight with the subject. It is short and written in a friendly tone. All business message and information solicit a friendly, cooperative and positive response from the employees, clients, senior or junior colleagues.
For example
“Every Saturday morning all supervisors in my plant must meet and report on the clean-up of their individual shop floors. All reports must be submitted by afternoon.
Principles of writing memos Give necessary and sufficient information.
 Don’t assume that everyone knows everything related to the issue discussed in the memo.  Explain the causes of problems or reasons for changes being suggested.
 Be pleasant rather than order. Use you-‘Attitude’.
 As for feedback or suggestions.
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Rewriting /Revising
Writing is a mode of thinking. Rewriting, or revising, what we have written or dictated is a mode of improved thinking.
Revising the first draft is not just for removing language errors. It is an attempt to see if we have been able to say what we meant to say and the way we meant it. Revision is, therefore a process of clarifying our ideas.
The writers of business letters and memos and other forms of business communications are advised to follow the three steps of successful writing if they want to communicate clearly and accurately.
Planning
Writing
Rewriting
Form and Layout of Business Letter
The appearance of business letter should be impressive. The stationary used should be of quality that speaks for the status of the company, organization, and the individual writing the letter. The layout should be neat, with proper margins on all sides. The letter is placed accordingly to the size of content. Usually, care is taken to leave sufficient margin on the left side to allow proper space for punching the letter. The typing should be attractive. Proper space and, never single space, between lines helps easy reading.
Style
An organisation selects one of the following styles of letter placement and follows it for all letters: 1. Full-block style
2. Semi-block style
3. Simplified style
The full-block style is normally used for typing a message, as it is convenient for the typist to set left hand margin for all paragraphs and other part of the letter. It also looks simple. Every line begins at the left margin and thus makes each paragraph look like a distinct block of message. Its convention of free punctuation marks further simplifies its typing. Earlier, the inside address, salutation, and closing used a comma or full stop; but now the trend is to leave it to the choice of the writer. The full block style is, therefore, easy and simple has one disadvantage. It looks heavy on one side.

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Notice that in semi-block style, the beginning of paragraphs is not left aligned; only the lines are left margined. The date is placed at the centre. Further, the closing, signature, name, and title are placed and aligned at the centre of the page.
Simplified style
In the simplified style, the letter neither has a situation nor a complimentary close. A subject line takes place of the situation. All lines begin from the left margin in alignment.
Subject line
Place the subject line between the situation and the inside address or the first line of the letter.
Dear Ms Ray,
Subject: Order No.4567
Date line

Spell out the month, place, and date about a double space beneath the letter head. Type it at the left margin in the full-block or simplified style letter. Place it at the centre if the semiblock style is used. Do not put a comma between month and year. You can separate date from year by using a comma, if month and year are placed together as in, 21 June 2003 or as June
21, 2003.

Use of second page of a letter
The second page of a letter is usually plain and without the letter-head printed on it.
Therefore type the heading, leaving six lines space from the top. In the heading give the addressee, page number, and date. This is done so that the second page is identified as a continuation of the first. You can write the heading in one of the ways1. Mrs S Uberoi

2003
2. Mrs S Uberoi, July 9, 2003, page 2
3. Mrs S Uberoi
July 9, 2003
Page 2

--------2--------

July 9,

Letter heading
If printed stationery is not available, use white paper, 8 ½ x11”, and type the company name and address, centred at the top.
Envelop Use the block form for the address. The standard official size sheets and specially for letters that include an enclosure. The commercial size envelope, 6 ½” by 3 5/8” is used for letters typed on pages smaller than the standard size.
Punctuation
Choose either the open or mixed punctuation. In “open” punctuation, there is no punctuation after the date, lines of the inside address, salutation, and complimentary close. Mixed punctuation also drops them except when a colon or comma is used after the salutation; the same is repeated after the complimentary close.
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Guidelines for writing letters and memos
 Consider your reader’s needs and expectations.
 Understand the purpose for writing your message and the total context in which it is done.  Put your essential information first.
 State your points clearly and directly.
 Use conventional formats.
 Be Courteous.
REPORT WRITING
What is a report?
A report can be defined as a communication in which the writer gives information to some individual or organization because it is his or her responsibility to do so. It is an assigned communication for a purpose and for a specific receiver/reader.
The common elements in all the reports, as a distinct form of writing, are the element of responsibility. The writer is obliged to communicate what he/she knows to one who needs, it, as a part his/her assigned, clearly defined and time-bound task.
Purpose of a report
Report is primarily a source of information to the management or an individual to help in decision-making. It can be used also for offering a solution to a business problem. Its purpose can be
 To give information about a company’s activities, progress, plans and problems.
 To record events for future references in decision making.
 To recommend specific action.
 To justify and persuade readers about the need for action in controversial situations.
 To present facts to the management to help decide the direction the business should choose. Kinds of reports
Reports are of two kinds Formal reports that contain all essential elements of a report.
 Semi-formal /informal reports
Reports are known by the names they get from their purpose and their form. Reports are usually identified as:
 Reports made by filling in a printed form
 Reports in the form of letters
 Reports in the forms of memos
 Reports on the progress and status of a project
 Periodic Reports
 Laboratory reports
 Short informal reports
 Formal reports
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OBJECTIVES OF A REPORT
The purpose of your report is to help the management identify the reasons underlying a situation that the management already knows. The alternatives available for solving it and the best course of action that emerges from the study of all relevant facts and factors, leading to specific conclusions regarding the problem’s existence and solution.
The study should be comprehensive. It should examine a problem and its solution from all aspects. Guidelines for defining report objectives
 The reporting person
 Their level of information and education
 The reason for report
 The final results
WRITING REPORTS
A report presents facts, conclusions, and recommendations in simple and clear words, in a logical and well-defined structure. The elements of full report, in the order of their sequence are Cover
 Title page
 Acknowledgements
 Table of Contents
 Executive Summary
 Introduction
 Discussion/Description
 Conclusions
 Recommendations
 Appendix
 List of references
 Bibliography
 Glossary
 Index
The first five elements constitute the front matter, the next four elements form the main body and the last five, last five constitute the back matter.
A Short Management Report
A short report is usually written either in the form of memorandum or a letter. Usually, report meant for persons outside the company or clients are written in letter form. The short report Consists of the title page or just the report’s title as the heading or subject.
 Usually, it is in direct order beginning with a summary or a statement summarising the whole content.
 Presents findings, analysis, conclusions and recommendations.

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WRITING ELEMENTS OF A LONG FORMAL REPORT
Mention Name and status of author
 Department and date of issue
 The heading should be short, clear and unambiguous
Acknowledgements

You should thank everyone associated with the assignment and preparation of your report. Be

generous in expressing your gratitude.

Cover Letter
A cover letter is usually written by top management/or project guide as a preface or foreword to a report, reflecting the management’s policy and interpretation of the report’s findings, conclusions and recommendations. It forwards the report and tells why it is being sent to that person. It is placed between the cover and title page. It is never bound inside the report. It can be written as a memo or a letter or a forwarding certificate.
Letter of Transmittal
Many times, a formal report is a accompanied by a letter to outside readers. Although the letter of transmittal is usually placed after the title page, it functions as a greeting to the reader. The letter covers a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations to give an idea of the report. It is best written in a direct conversational manner.
1. Begin directly by talking about the subject of the report.
Dear Miss Shobha,
Here is the report you requested on August 20 about a nice plot of land for your proposed play school in Greater Noida.
2. Give a brief review of the contents of the report.
3. Acknowledge the contribution of others to your study, if any.
4. End the letter by thinking the authorizing person or body and expressing hope for helping again.
You should write this letter in the personal style of a business letter-use personal pronouns, first person and active voice. The tone should reflect your sincerity.
Now days, a cover letter is generally preferred to a letter transmittal.
Table of Contents
Long reports must have a Table of Contents placed after acknowledgements and before the summary. It is an important element in a long formal report. It indentifies the topics and their page numbers in the report for the reader. The Table of Contents indicates the hierarchy of topics and their sequence also. Also mention the main sections of your report in the contents exactly as they are worded in the text.

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ABSTRACT AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
An abstract or summary is placed immediately after the list of tables, or after the title page or on the title page itself.
Normally, a report uses either an abstract or executive summaries instead of abstracts. An abstract can be either descriptive or informative, it is generally written about 200 words in just one paragraph. An executive summary is a more detailed overview of a report than an abstract. It can run into one or two pages. It presents the reader with preview of a report’s main points, conclusions, recommendations and the way the findings are likely to affect company planning. Often, we like to know the contents of a report specially its conclusion and recommendations, just my reading detailed synopsis in the form of an executive summary. Descriptive Abstract
A descriptive abstract only mentions the topics discussed in a report. It does not give details of those topics. For details, the reader has to go through the report. Executives have little patience with such a skeleton account of report’s important conclusions and recommendations. Informative Abstract
An informative abstract discusses the main subjects, presents conclusions and recommendations. Formal reports and scientific and technical articles often use and informative abstract.
Executive summary
An executive summary covers all the major elements of a report’s content Background of a problem
 Major topics
 Important details
 Major conclusions
 Recommendation
 Discussion of the waste that the implementation of recommendation would affect the company.
Introduction
States the details of the –
 Authorising person or body requesting the report
 Author or group of authors responsible for investigation
 Purpose or reason for the report
 Methods of enquiry
 Arrangement or grouping of data
 General background to report’s subject
Findings
Presents the result of the investigation

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Conclusion
 State the result of the investigation
 Offers answers to the questions raised in the beginning of the report
 No new information should appear in the conclusions
Recommendation
 This part is the action centre of the report
 State how the conclusion should be acted upon
 Make clear and definite recommendations
 If further investigation is required, mention it as a condition for a more comprehensive study the problem
You cannot have a report without the recommendations, even if you have not been asked to give them. Recommendations flow out of conclusion, as conclusions do form discussion.
Glossary
Glossary is the list of technical or special terms used in a report/ technical paper placed at the end of the report and before the index. It alphabetically lists the words or phrases which need special attention. It explains the usage of technical terms peculiar in industry. A glossary of usage includes rules for forming compounds words, abbreviating technical terms, and writing unusual or difficult words. A glossary also acts as a dictionary of some select words, which often get confused, misused or wrongly spelt.
Appendix
The appendix is used to give a variety of information separately, as its inclusion in a main body could interfere with smooth reading of the report. It usually includes the text of questionnaires of other survey. Tables, flow charts, maps, summaries of raw data, and details of a mathematical formulation are generally included in the appendix. Each appendix is numbered Appendix A, Appendix B and so on to help the reader indentify the material given in an appendix. Sometimes a descriptive title is given. Sometimes, the word Annexure is used for appendix.
Bibliography
All published and unpublished source of information used in preparing the report are listed under bibliography. All reference documents, previous reports, books, periodicals, and even letters written and received by the writer are mentioned in it.
Index
Index is the alphabetical list of subjects, names and so on with references to page number where they occur in the report or a book. It is usually placed the end. It should not be confused with the contents which always appear at the beginning of a report or book.
In long reports and voluminous works, index helps the reader locate a subject easily in the text of the report wherever it has been mentioned or discussed.
Normally an author’s note about the symbols used in indexing subject appears at the beginning of the index entries, which help the reader, follow the way entries or made.
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Module 5
Case method of learning
What is a case?
A case is a written account of real or stimulated managerial problems, dilemmas, and situations calling for solutions. Analysis of cases is an exercise in critical understanding of concepts and causes of problems and events.
Types of case
Broadly speaking, a case can be1. Theoretical
2. Factual
1. Theoretical Cases Case studies which are meant for reading and clarifying theoretical concepts of a discipline, such as management, involving the study of marketing, human relations, communication, and so on are academic studies. They are used as examples to concretize the abstract concepts of a discipline. The interplay of ideas is presented in the form of action, interaction, and conflict among persons involved in a life-like situation, described by the case.
2. Factual Cases
Case studies which describe and illustrate an organization’s experience and efforts to overcome different problems and situations are real cases. These cases are based on facts. They present the critical management issue with full details of facts and figures. Their analysis requires a systematic approach to identification of the main problem, alternative solutions, and finally the best solution. Such factual case studies project corporate problems belonging to any functional area of management, such as marketing, production, or human relations. But the technique of analyzing different cases would not be different.
Analysis of factual cases will follow the same technique of identification and evaluation of alternatives for documenting the strategic process of decision-making.
Case Analysing
1. A good case study is based on critical management issue faced by organizations. It does not focus on personal dilemmas.
2. The subject matter of a case can be used for different purposes. A case can illustrate the principles of effective communication, and it can be used also to demonstrate techniques of sales and marketing. For example, see the case of Devox as the case of a less expensive customer. Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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3. There are no rights or wrong answers to the questions raised by a case study. Your answer/ solutions to the problem should be logically correct.
Process of Analyzing A Case
Firstly, the case analysis requires you to understand the case and its context. It involves comprehensive study of all those factors at the organizational level, which may be responsible for affecting the working conditions and performance level. The first thing is, therefore, to know the goals, objectives, and the structure of the organization.
First Step-Study the case
First you study the case thoroughly. Start with quickly reading the important points of the case. Understanding the general drift and then re-read the whole material slowly taking note of important issue, facts, and ideas.
Second Step-Identify the problem
After what you have known about the case, the most important thing is your ability to identify the main problem and discover relationships between the problem and the factors responsible for it.
Third Step-Define the problem
Formulate the problem in precise words.
Fourth Step-Identify Causes of the problem
State relevant facts and establish logical links between them. Here, you should remember that facts are not opinions. Collect facts as your basic data obtained through investigation and study of work-environment and other industry-related factors affecting the case- the problem of situation to be resolved.
Fifth Step-Development Alternatives
Suggest alternative answers/ solutions to the problem or questions raised in the case.
Six Step-Evaluate Alternatives
Evaluate each solution in terms of its relevance to the objective and the decision to be taken.
Compare the results and decide on the best course of action recommended by you.
Seventh Steps-Develop Plan of Action
Work out a plan of implementation.

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Writing a Case Analysis- The Structure
The writing of a case analysis follows a sequence of steps. Like a project report or an investigative report, it presents the process, findings, conclusions, and recommendations of the analysis in an organized form, under distinct headings and sub headings.
Requirement for a case analysis
1. Through knowledge of the concerned subject
The first requirement for being able to write analysis of a theoretical case is through knowledge of subject. Analysis needs application of concepts of effective communication.
2. Ability to be analytical For attempting case analysis, you have to go deeper into the situation described in the case. You have to be searching and seeking answers for questions, such as What does this signifies or mean?
 Why is this important or significant?
 Why does it happen?
 How can we relate different things to one another?
 Can we explain the whole thing in terms of our assumptions and observations?
To analysis means to break a thing into its constituent parts. It involves more than describing a thing. We take ideas apart so that we can discuss components of ideas, discovering relationships, and interactions with which we tie them together. And finally examine the validity of logic we use to establish relationships between ideas and their components.
3. Ability to do critical thinking The ability to think critically is to beyond the obvious and looks for the truth underlying the conflicts, and statements that meet our eyes. It is an attitude of mind to question and accept things only after examining the basis of our belief in them. 4. Ability to evaluate Ability to evaluate is a part of critical thinking. When we exercise judgment to establish the correction or incorrectness of our view of things, we are being evaluative. To evaluate, you have to give reasons for your judgment.
5. Ability to infer
You should be able to finally view the whole problem from a certain perspective. Here, the analysis takes the position that effective communication is an act of total personality of the communicator Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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Negotiation skills
What is negotiation?
Negotiation is a process of bargaining in which two parties, each of whom have something that the order wants, try to reach an agreement, on mutually accepted terms.
Example:
 A superior making a suggestion to his manager
 A salesperson trying to arrange a meeting with a prospective wholesaler/dealer
Definition
The objective of most negotiations is to reach an agreement in which both parties together move towards an outcome that is mutually beneficial.
The Nature of Negotiation
The following two points make the nature of negotiation quite clear:
 Negotiation takes place between two parties are equally interested in an agreed action/ result.  Negotiation reaches agreement through discussion, not instruction, orders or power/influence/authority. Need to Negotiate
Situations Requiring Negotiation
The following situations require negotiation Negotiation is required when a problem cannot be resolved by a single person.
Whenever two or more persons or parties are involved in deciding a matter / or issue and they have different views or aims regarding the outcome, the way to overcome disagreement is by negotiating, this is by discussing, persuading and influencing.
 Negotiation can take place only when both the concerned parties are willing to meet the discuss an issue. That is to say, they both want to reach an agreed decision by discussion, not force or authority.

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There are formal and informal situations of negotiationsFormal situations
 A preannounced meeting of the two parties.
 The agenda is already fixed. Both parties know what is going to be discussed.
 Generally, more than two persons are involved in the discussion. The ideal is three.
 For formal negotiation you have time to prepare and fix roles for each party.
 Formal negotiation is simpler to handle than unannounced meetings. You have time to study the total situation. You have time to find out the strength of the arguments of the other party.
Informal situations
 Unannounced and casual meetings- When a staff member drops by your office and discusses a problem, to which you attempt to find a solution. This is an informal negotiation because
-It is unannounced
-It involves just two persons
-It appears as casual –your colleague might have planned to approach you for help in this manner
-It gives you no time to prepare for discussion
-Its friendly approach is meant to act as an influence on your final decision making
-It does not allow time to study the strength or weakness of the other side.
Situations Not Requiring Negotiation
The following situations will not require negotiation When one of the two parties/ persons immediately accepts or agrees to what the other is suggesting or asking for. In such a situation there is no need for negotiating. The desired result is already achieved.
 Whenever one of the two parties refuses even to consider or discuss the suggestion or proposal.
Factors Affecting Negotiation
The following factors usually affect the outcomes of negotiation:
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Place
 The place of meeting for negotiations influences the level of confidence.
Choosing a place, like your own office, as many advantages. You are in your area of strength.
 You can get whatever information/ material is needed during the course of negotiation.  You can extend social courtesies as a token of goodwill; this would move the negotiation towards agreement.
Time
 The choice of time for holding discussion should be fixed according to mutual convenience.  Time should be adequate for the smooth exchange of ideas through different stages of negotiation-Exchanging initial views
-Exploring possible compromise
-Searching for common ground
-Securing agreement
 The time to prepare for negotiation and the time for implementing the agreement should also be carefully fixed for action before and after the meeting.
Subjective Factors
 Often the outcome the discussion does not depend wholly on the objective factors of logic and facts of the matter under by subjective factors of influence and persuasion.
Personal Relationship
The conduct of negotiation is influence not only by the real situation of the matter but also by the relationship between the two persons/ parties involved in the process of discussion.
Fear
Often our bargaining power is conditioned by our fear of power, authority, higher connection and the capacity to harm enjoyed by the other party.

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Future considerations
When personal relationships are at stake, we may not wish to win the argument in the negotiations in case the good relations between the two parties are likely to be affected.
Mutual obligation
The memory of the good done in the past by the other party also acts as a negative influence
(fear) on us.
Practical wisdom
Fear of losing good future changes in a strong factor in our bargaining/ negotiation positions and power
Categories of influence
The following are the categories of influence Personal relationship, short and long term considerations
 States difference
 Higher connection with source of power
 Expectation about outcomes
 Information and expertise
 Aiming
 Reputation of the other person
 Locating the negotiation environment
 Formality
 Work pressure
 Personal likes and dislikes
 Mutual obligations
 Concerned for working relationship
Persuasion
Persuasion comprises a range of skills for convincing other people of the need to accept to agree to a course of action. It is an essential element of effective business communication. It helps in resolving issue about which two persons have different views but they need to agree
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about solutions in the interest of all. In negotiations, peoples are gradually persuaded to accept the other party’s view.
Different persuasive skills
The whole range of persuasive skills can be classified under the following broad headings:
 Style
 You attitude

- Collaborative or confrontational
-The other person’s view point

 Talking and listening
 Probing and questioning
 Using breaks when necessary
 Concessions and compromise
 Avoid confrontational tone
 Summarizing
 Reaching an agreement
“You attitude”
 As a successful negotiator, understand the other party’s need.
 The art of negotiation depends on your ability to reconcile what is good result for you with what is a good result for the other party.
 Persuasion is a means to make negotiations/ discussions end with a satisfying conclusion for both sides (win-win situation)
Stages of the negotiation process
Generally, the process of negotiation moves from the stage of ‘Offer’ to that of ‘Agreement’ through ‘Counter-offer’, ’Concession’ and ‘Compromise’ stages.
Sequence of Discussions
The stages of an effective discussions are Preparing and planning
 Exchanging initial view
 Exploring possible compromise
 Searching for common ground

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 Securing agreement
 Implementing the agreement
These six stages can be grouped into three basic phases A preparation phase before the negotiation begins
 The actual negotiating process-the interaction that leads to final agreement about an outcome
 The implementation of the agreement
Negotiation implies that both parties accept that the agreement between them is needed before any decision is to be implemented. The process of discussion is towards that desired agreement. Hence, it requires careful preparing and handling.
Preparation
All effective communication/ discussion, negotiations have to be planned. The negotiator has to be prepared before the actual process of negotiation starts in two respects –
 Accessing the relative of the two parties
 The setting of negotiation objectives. At this stage, negotiator should try to answer the following two questions-What are the real issues?
-Which party should be involved?
Know the subject matter well and are not likely to feel surprised or shaken by the other party introducing unexpected facts are figures.That you are clear about what you want to achieve through discussion.
Be realistic about objectives
Prepare your objectives realistically. Suppose you failed to perceive the other person to accept your ideal solution, then you should be prepared to come down in your expectations.
But, in such a situation in lowering your expectation, if the ideal is not achievable, you should be very clear and firm about the lowest outcome acceptable to you.
To be well prepared before the actual negotiating process begins, consider the following Be sure that you know enough about the subject matter to be discussed
 Decide your objective and bottom value
 Plan how best to argue your case

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The negotiating face
Most effective negotiations follow a set sequence –
 The parties begin by defining the issues. They argue about the scope of negotiation.
 Each side then puts forwards what it is seeking or first the party that makes the claim presents its case, and thereafter, the other party gives an initial response – thus both the parties define their initial position.
 After that comes a more open phase in which the initial position are tested through argument.  The parties move to a possible solution that could be argument’s outcome.
 Firm proposals in more specific terms are then made, discussed and often modified before both the parties accept them.
 Finally, an argument is spelt out and concluded.
Implementation
Some scholars consider that preparation and implementation are not parts of negotiation. They constitute two basic phases of actual process of negotiation – one before initiating the negotiation process and the other after concluding discussions.
 The purpose of negotiation is to achieve an agreement; the purpose of agreement should be to implement the agreed decision/outcome.
 If due attention is not paid to the implementation part of a negotiation, then negotiation fail.
Three steps to prevent failure of implementation –
 In all formal negotiations, confirm in writing all that has been agreed upon.
 As far as possible, mention in the agreement an implementation programme. That is to say, who is supposed to do what by when. This matter, is left undefined, may become the subject of disagreement later on.
 Ensure every concerned person, not only those involved in the discussion, is clearly told about the agreement, its implications, and the action which will follow.

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NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES
Initial strategies
 Plan the whole discussion according to the psychological needs and use appropriate strategies to maximise the advantage for gaining information about the views and objectives of their party.
 Set a tone for the whole discussion that focuses attention on the need to reach an agreed conclusion by joint problem solving.
 Sell “sunny-side up”. Think how the other person will see your proposal. Try to identify and “sell” to the other person the benefit that would go to them if they accept your case.
 Alter your position if need to achieve this approach.
 Avoid compulsive talking. Allow the other persons to say what they wish to; develop a dialog with the other person.
During the Discussion
 Do not state the whole case in the beginning; develop your case as the discussion proceeds. If you put forth your whole case at the beginning, you leave no chance to change your position in the light of the other person’s arguments.
 Be a silent listener of other speaker’s argument. Notice the tone, not just the words.
The tone will tell you how they feel- confident or nervous, irritated or cool.
 Don’t interrupt. Interruptions annoy, instead of encouraging cooperation.
 Put searching questions to verify the correctness of factual information offered by the other party, such as dates, figures, and so on or of their logic.
If you doubt the correctness if the information given by them, do not directly challenge them by telling them, “You are wrong”. Instead, you may put further questions such as –
 “Could you explain the connection between the point and what you said earlier about
X?”
 “I have not understood the logic of that: could you put it in a different way?”
Avoid confrontational tone
 The strategy should be to allow the discussion to move towards agreement. Further securing this purpose, you have to psychologically encourage cooperation throughout the discussion.

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 Use impersonal terminology to point out corrections, rather than making personal criticism. Use adjournments purposes. During the discussion a short break of 10 minutes can be used for two

 To get a chance to consider new points or proposals before going to decide final commitments.  To change the mood of the discussions if it has become too emotionally charged.
Use concessions and compromise At times, it may be impossible to move further without making some concessions. Strategies concerned partly with timing, and partly with the way possible concessions are introduced in to the discussion.
When we realize that attitudes are hardening and again and again the same points are being repeated, the discussion could be changed to an exploratory phase.
Use conditional compromise you can say, “Since we now know each other’s views, it might be helpful if I could know what your response would be to my suggestion that I could accept this extent what you have suggested.”
 “Would you do ‘x’ if I accepted to do ‘y’?”
 “Would you be able to agree to ‘x’ if I able to postpone taking action on ‘y’?”
Emphasise the other person’s benefit from your compromise suggestion.
 The other person should not be allowed to feel that is losing by accepting your offer of concession or compromise.
 Praise the other partly for a good suggestion that you are going to accept as a condition for changing your position.
As a strategy –
 Don not allows the discussion to go on too long without bringing in concession/compromises necessary for reaching agreement.
 Introduce concessions/compromises on a non commitment basis.
 See the concessions suggested from your side seem to belong to moves by the other person’s. Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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Reaching an agreement
 After a long and difficult discussion, ‘final’ should be taken as ‘final’. No further concessions or compromises should be allowed.
 Be tactful and persuasive so as to ensure that the final outcome, which is of advantage to you, is seen by the other person as a benefit to his party.
 The key strategy in any negotiation is “persuasive”
 Emphasize the other party’s benefits
 Approach the other party’s cooperation and brilliant suggestion
Summarising
 Suggest “I think it would be helpful if we could summarise all that we have discussed and reached this agreement.”
 “Better that we note it down so that no point is later missed by anyone.”
In case of a deadlock
 Reaching a mutually satisfactory end is the basic objective of any negotiation.
Suppose, there is no final agreement reached after a prolonged discussion, the strategy should be to –
 Point out no further concessions can be made as they would be of no benefit to either of the parties.
 Explain and emphasize the consequences that would flow from a deadlock, such as the matter will have to be referred to higher-ups, or eventually to external arbitration.
 Use the ethical aspect of agreement, such as upholding the organization’s values, the greatest good of the largest number of people, and so on.
 Even in the situation of, a deadlock, remain positive and hopeful of reaching a mutually agreed solution/or agreement ultimately.

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Module 6
Negotiation skills & Presentation skills
Negotiation skills
Negotiation is a process of bargaining in which two parties, each of whom have something that the order wants, try to reach an agreement, on mutually accepted terms.
Example:
 A superior making a suggestion to his manager
 A salesperson trying to arrange a meeting with a prospective wholesaler/dealer
Definition
The objective of most negotiations is to reach an agreement in which both parties together move towards an outcome that is mutually beneficial.
The Nature of Negotiation
The following two points make the nature of negotiation quite clear:
 Negotiation takes place between two parties are equally interested in an agreed action/ result.  Negotiation reaches agreement through discussion, not instruction, orders or power/influence/authority. Need to Negotiate
Situations Requiring Negotiation
The following situations require negotiation Negotiation is required when a problem cannot be resolved by a single person.
Whenever two or more persons or parties are involved in deciding a matter / or issue and they have different views or aims regarding the outcome, the way to overcome disagreement is by negotiating, this is by discussing, persuading and influencing.
 Negotiation can take place only when both the concerned parties are willing to meet the discuss an issue. That is to say, they both want to reach an agreed decision by discussion, not force or authority.

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There are formal and informal situations of negotiationsFormal situations
 A preannounced meeting of the two parties.
 The agenda is already fixed. Both parties know what is going to be discussed.
 Generally, more than two persons are involved in the discussion. The ideal is three.
 For formal negotiation you have time to prepare and fix roles for each party.
 Formal negotiation is simpler to handle than unannounced meetings. You have time to study the total situation. You have time to find out the strength of the arguments of the other party.
Informal situations
 Unannounced and casual meetings- When a staff member drops by your office and discusses a problem, to which you attempt to find a solution. This is an informal negotiation because
-It is unannounced
-It involves just two persons
-It appears as casual –your colleague might have planned to approach you for help in this manner
-It gives you no time to prepare for discussion
-Its friendly approach is meant to act as an influence on your final decision making
-It does not allow time to study the strength or weakness of the other side.
Situations Not Requiring Negotiation
The following situations will not require negotiation When one of the two parties/ persons immediately accepts or agrees to what the other is suggesting or asking for. In such a situation there is no need for negotiating. The desired result is already achieved.
 Whenever one of the two parties refuses even to consider or discuss the suggestion or proposal.

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Factors Affecting Negotiation
The following factors usually affect the outcomes of negotiation:

Place
 The place of meeting for negotiations influences the level of confidence.
Choosing a place, like your own office, as many advantages. You are in your area of strength.
 You can get whatever information/ material is needed during the course of negotiation.  You can extend social courtesies as a token of goodwill; this would move the negotiation towards agreement.
Time
 The choice of time for holding discussion should be fixed according to mutual convenience.  Time should be adequate for the smooth exchange of ideas through different stages of negotiation-Exchanging initial views
-Exploring possible compromise
-Searching for common ground
-Securing agreement
 The time to prepare for negotiation and the time for implementing the agreement should also be carefully fixed for action before and after the meeting.
Subjective Factors
 Often the outcome the discussion does not depend wholly on the objective factors of logic and facts of the matter under by subjective factors of influence and persuasion.
Personal Relationship
The conduct of negotiation is influence not only by the real situation of the matter but also by the relationship between the two persons/ parties involved in the process of discussion.

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Fear
Often our bargaining power is conditioned by our fear of power, authority, higher connection and the capacity to harm enjoyed by the other party
Future considerations
When personal relationships are at stake, we may not wish to win the argument in the negotiations in case the good relations between the two parties are likely to be affected.
Mutual obligation
The memory of the good done in the past by the other party also acts as a negative influence
(fear) on us.
Practical wisdom
Fear of losing good future changes in a strong factor in our bargaining/ negotiation positions and power
Categories of influence
The following are the categories of influence Personal relationship, short and long term considerations
 States difference
 Higher connection with source of power
 Expectation about outcomes
 Information and expertise
 Aiming
 Reputation of the other person
 Locating the negotiation environment
 Formality
 Work pressure
 Personal likes and dislikes
 Mutual obligations
 Concerned for working relationship
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Persuasion
Persuasion comprises a range of skills for convincing other people of the need to accept to agree to a course of action. It is an essential element of effective business communication. It helps in resolving issue about which two persons have different views but they need to agree about solutions in the interest of all. In negotiations, peoples are gradually persuaded to accept the other party’s view.
Different persuasive skills
The whole range of persuasive skills can be classified under the following broad headings:
 Style
 You attitude

- Collaborative or confrontational
-The other person’s view point

 Talking and listening
 Probing and questioning
 Using breaks when necessary
 Concessions and compromise
 Avoid confrontational tone
 Summarizing
 Reaching an agreement
“You attitude”
 As a successful negotiator, understand the other party’s need.
 The art of negotiation depends on your ability to reconcile what is good result for you with what is a good result for the other party.
 Persuasion is a means to make negotiations/ discussions end with a satisfying conclusion for both sides (win-win situation)
Stages of the negotiation process
Generally, the process of negotiation moves from the stage of ‘Offer’ to that of ‘Agreement’ through ‘Counter-offer’, ’Concession’ and ‘Compromise’ stages.

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Sequence of Discussions
The stages of an effective discussions are Preparing and planning
 Exchanging initial view
 Exploring possible compromise
 Searching for common ground
 Securing agreement
 Implementing the agreement
These six stages can be grouped into three basic phases A preparation phase before the negotiation begins
 The actual negotiating process-the interaction that leads to final agreement about an outcome
 The implementation of the agreement
Negotiation implies that both parties accept that the agreement between them is needed before any decision is to be implemented. The process of discussion is towards that desired agreement. Hence, it requires careful preparing and handling.
Preparation
All effective communication/ discussion, negotiations have to be planned. The negotiator has to be prepared before the actual process of negotiation starts in two respects –
 Accessing the relative of the two parties
 The setting of negotiation objectives. At this stage, negotiator should try to answer the following two questions-What are the real issues?
-Which party should be involved?
Know the subject matter well and are not likely to feel surprised or shaken by the other party introducing unexpected facts are figures. That you are clear about what you want to achieve through discussion.

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Be realistic about objectives
Prepare your objectives realistically. Suppose you failed to perceive the other person to accept your ideal solution, then you should be prepared to come down in your expectations.
But, in such a situation in lowering your expectation, if the ideal is not achievable, you should be very clear and firm about the lowest outcome acceptable to you.
To be well prepared before the actual negotiating process begins, consider the following Be sure that you know enough about the subject matter to be discussed
 Decide your objective and bottom value
 Plan how best to argue your case
The negotiating face
Most effective negotiations follow a set sequence –
 The parties begin by defining the issues. They argue about the scope of negotiation.
 Each side then puts forwards what it is seeking or first the party that makes the claim presents its case, and thereafter, the other party gives an initial response – thus both the parties define their initial position.
 After that comes a more open phase in which the initial position are tested through argument.  The parties move to a possible solution that could be argument’s outcome.
 Firm proposals in more specific terms are then made, discussed and often modified before both the parties accept them.
 Finally, an argument is spelt out and concluded.
Implementation
Some scholars consider that preparation and implementation are not parts of negotiation. They constitute two basic phases of actual process of negotiation – one before initiating the negotiation process and the other after concluding discussions.
 The purpose of negotiation is to achieve an agreement; the purpose of agreement should be to implement the agreed decision/outcome.
 If due attention is not paid to the implementation part of a negotiation, then negotiation fail.
Three steps to prevent failure of implementation –
 In all formal negotiations, confirm in writing all that has been agreed upon.
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 As far as possible, mention in the agreement an implementation programme. That is to say, who is supposed to do what by when. This matter, is left undefined, may become the subject of disagreement later on.
 Ensure every concerned person, not only those involved in the discussion, is clearly told about the agreement, its implications, and the action which will follow.
NEGOTIATION STRATEGIES
Initial strategies
 Plan the whole discussion according to the psychological needs and use appropriate strategies to maximise the advantage for gaining information about the views and objectives of their party.
 Set a tone for the whole discussion that focuses attention on the need to reach an agreed conclusion by joint problem solving.
 Sell “sunny-side up”. Think how the other person will see your proposal. Try to identify and “sell” to the other person the benefit that would go to them if they accept your case.
 Alter your position if need to achieve this approach.
 Avoid compulsive talking. Allow the other persons to say what they wish to; develop a dialog with the other person.
During the Discussion
 Do not state the whole case in the beginning; develop your case as the discussion proceeds. If you put forth your whole case at the beginning, you leave no chance to change your position in the light of the other person’s arguments.
 Be a silent listener of other speaker’s argument. Notice the tone, not just the words.
The tone will tell you how they feel- confident or nervous, irritated or cool.
 Don’t interrupt. Interruptions annoy, instead of encouraging cooperation.
 Put searching questions to verify the correctness of factual information offered by the other party, such as dates, figures, and so on or of their logic.
If you doubt the correctness if the information given by them, do not directly challenge them by telling them, “you are wrong”. Instead, you may put further questions such as –
 “Could you explain the connection between the point and what you said earlier about
X?”

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 “I have not understood the logic of that: could you put it in a different way?”
Avoid confrontational tone
 The strategy should be to allow the discussion to move towards agreement. Further securing this purpose, you have to psychologically encourage cooperation throughout the discussion.
 Use impersonal terminology to point out corrections, rather than making personal criticism. Use adjournments purposes. During the discussion a short break of 10 minutes can be used for two

 To get a chance to consider new points or proposals before going to decide final commitments.  To change the mood of the discussions if it has become too emotionally charged.
Use concessions and compromise At times, it may be impossible to move further without making some concessions. Strategies concerned partly with timing, and partly with the way possible concessions are introduced in to the discussion.
When we realize that attitudes are hardening and again and again the same points are being repeated, the discussion could be changed to an exploratory phase.
Use conditional compromise you can say, “Since we now know each other’s views, it might be helpful if I could know what your response would be to my suggestion that I could accept this extent what you have suggested.”
 “Would you do ‘x’ if I accepted to do ‘y’?”
 “Would you be able to agree to ‘x’ if I able to postpone taking action on ‘y’?”
Emphasise the other person’s benefit from your compromise suggestion.
 The other person should not be allowed to feel that is losing by accepting your offer of concession or compromise.
 Praise the other partly for a good suggestion that you are going to accept as a condition for changing your position.
As a strategy –
 Don not allows the discussion to go on too long without bringing in concession/compromises necessary for reaching agreement.
 Introduce concessions/compromises on a non commitment basis.
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 See the concessions suggested from your side seem to belong to moves by the other person’s. Reaching an agreement
 After a long and difficult discussion, ‘final’ should be taken as ‘final’. No further concessions or compromises should be allowed.
 Be tactful and persuasive so as to ensure that the final outcome, which is of advantage to you, is seen by the other person as a benefit to his party.
 The key strategy in any negotiation is “persuasive”
 Emphasize the other party’s benefits
 Approach the other party’s cooperation and brilliant suggestion
Summarising
 Suggest “I think it would be helpful if we could summarise all that we have discussed and reached this agreement.”
 “Better that we note it down so that no point is later missed by anyone.”
In case of a deadlock
 Reaching a mutually satisfactory end is the basic objective of any negotiation.
Suppose, there is no final agreement reached after a prolonged discussion, the strategy should be to –
 Point out no further concessions can be made as they would be of no benefit to either of the parties.
 Explain and emphasize the consequences that would flow from a deadlock, such as the matter will have to be referred to higher-ups, or eventually to external arbitration.
 Use the ethical aspect of agreement, such as upholding the organization’s values, the greatest good of the largest number of people, and so on.
 Even in the situation of, a deadlock, remain positive and hopeful of reaching a mutually agreed solution/or agreement ultimately.
Presentation Skills
What is a presentation?
A presentation is a live mode of sharing information with a select audience. It is a form of oral communication in which a person shares factual information with a particular audience.
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Presentation as an oral activity using visual electronic aids to discuss news ideas and information with a specific audience in an impressive and convincing manner.
Elements of a presentation
Presentations have three major elements Presenter
 Audience
 Specific content with a definite objective to be achieved.
Plan the following before delivering the presentation Identify your purpose
 Analyse your audience
 Identify the need
 Collate your information
 Design your communication
 Time your presentation
 Decide on the visual aids to be used
 Study the location
Purpose
 Sell something or to persuade people to follow a course of action which they may not like to do
 Information people about an idea or describe a business opportunity to gain support for some course of action or to suggest a likely course of action in the future.
 Gather people’s views on new plans or products or proposals to introduced changes.
 Put across a problem to seek a solution or to minimize people’s reaction to it.
 Just create awareness by sharing information
 Motivate , educate or impart training to promote productive work culture
Audience Before you make a presentation, know the group you are going to address. Get an idea of the number, nature, and need, level of knowledge and attitude of those people who are going to receive your message. The audience factors will determine the language of delivery
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and selection of input. It also helps you focus your presentation on those issues that would be of interest to your listener.
Guidelines for analysing the audience
 Kind of audience
 Reason for attending presentation
 Background and level of knowledge
 Number of persons attending the presentation
 Attitude towards the subject and the presenter
 Results of presentation
Information gathering
Two essential things that give shape to the presentation or the purpose and the audience needs. Their needs will guide to gather and arrange the information to be presented. For an effective presentation the structure and designing of the presentation is highly important.
Designing presentation
The normal order of any exposition is to first to list the main ideas and then elaborate your points. The sequence followed in all reports along with the timing are as follows.
 Introduction

03 minutes

 Main body

15 minutes

 Conclusion

02 minutes

 Question and answers

10 minutes

Logical order of presentation
Introduction

03 minutes

Introduction indicates the main idea of presentation, which helps the audience to know the subject and the focus of presentation. Next elaborate the purpose and the reasons.
Main body

15 minutes

The main body of the presentation is to utilise to inform the audience about the advantages of the proposal. This part would include findings of the study and analysis of the data to convince the audience. Divide this section in to sub sections, but care should be taken not to have more than three sub sections.
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02 minutes

Conclusion focus on the end results arrived by analysing the data. Recommendation and suggestions with respect to future action plans are formulated.
Presentation time
The total presentation including the question and answer part should be covered within the time allotted to it. Many of us ignore the facts that audience interest and attention are condition by time factor. Well delivered and effective presentation is one that has a smart beginning and logically arrives at a conclusion.
Kinds of visual aids
 Board-black/white board
 Flip charts
 Overhead projectors
 Power point software
Points for using OHP
 Check that the projectors switch are working
 See if the projector lens and surface are cleaned
 Adjust the focus for obtaining the brightest and the largest image on the screen
 Place transparency on the projection surface
 Switch of the projector between the visuals
 Locate the switches on the OHP using it
 Unfold the points one by one
Power point presentation
The OHP as a tool for making impressive professional presentation as been taken over by the computer based power point presentation. This is projected with the help of multimedia projector. Enlarged computer screen displace the well laid out information to a large audience. Pictures, photographs are all displayed as a part of the presentation with cinematic effect. Dept of MBA, SJBIT

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Guidelines for effective presentation
 Place of presentation
 Do not read
 Used your attitude to ensure audience involvement
 Give the outline of the content
 Tell the audience the next coming content
 Handle the question and answer session carefully

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