Gender Anxiety Essay
Gender
Running Head: GENDER AND PARENTAL
Gender and Parental Marital Status as Predictors of Anxiety among
Undergraduate Students
1
Gender
2
Abstract
In order to investigate anxiety levels of undergraduate students at Saint Mary’s College of California, a questionnaire was constructed based on previous pilot-study data.
Possible predictors of anxiety included gender and parents’ marital status. Women with divorced parents were hypothesized to have higher anxiety levels when compared to women with married parents, men with married parents, and men with divorced parents.
Other possible predictors including age, GPA, number of roommates, relationship status, amount due in student loans, and ethnicity were examined. Gender …show more content…
differences in anxiety levels were found, in which females showed higher levels than men. As hypothesized, females with divorced parents displayed the highest levels of anxiety when compared to all other groups.
Gender
3
Gender and Parental Marital Status as Predictors of Anxiety among
Undergraduate Students
Anxiety research has found that many people experience this emotion at uncomfortably high levels at some point in their lives, and that “anxiety is one of the most common emotional disorders in the United States” (Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn,
Seeley & Allen, 1998, p.
109). Therefore, the causes and effects of anxiety have remained topics of interest within personality studies. Barlow (2000) defined anxiety as a
“helpless state resulting from feelings of being unable to predict, control or obtain desired outcomes” (p. 1249). It is important to note that anxiety has its benefits. For example, increased anxiety has been shown to help individuals get through fearful or negative events, which serves a useful purpose (Barlow, 2000). The problem arises when anxiety persists for a long period of time after the stressful event has passed. Anxiety disorders are classified as “six months (or more) of persistent worry and prolonged physiological responses due to excessive anxiety in which the person can’t refrain from worry” (The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders- IV, 2000).
Barlow (2000) proposed that anxiety arises from anticipating something negative or uncomfortable based on previous experience. Moderate anxiety levels …show more content…
prepare individuals to deal with situations by causing a physical response, such as increased heart-rate and energy, however, Barlow (2000) argued that higher levels of anxiety can actually cause the person to become overwhelmed, therefore increasing feelings of helplessness. The continuous interaction between anxiety and feelings of helplessness
Gender
4
cause the person to feel like they have no control over the situation, which results in either constant worry or avoiding the situation all together (Barlow, 2000).
Increased anxiety levels have been shown to increase “muscle tension, pulse rate, breathing, blood pressure, and perspiration” (Barlow, 2000, p. 1251), which can cause debilitation instead of control. Another explanation for the cause of anxiety disregards the situation that elevates this emotion. Freud (1926) proposed that “anxiety relates to the state and disregards the object or situation” (p. 491). He believed that anxiety protects us in situations that we think are threatening even if there is nothing to fear. Freud (1926) emphasized the ongoing nature of anxiety, in which people mentally prepare for the
“repetition of some particular significant experience” (p. 492). The repetitious nature of anxiety can cause people to develop physical responses associated with this emotion during situations that are similar to ones they have feared in the past. Experiencing these responses (increased heart rate, perspiration, etc.) on a regular basis can be overwhelming and difficult to control. Maki, Pollack & Otto (2000) suggested that anxiety
disorders have a reoccurring component, which causes people to eventually seek professional help.
Professional help involves the therapist recreating fearful events in the patients’ life until they are thought to be neutral (Maki et al, 2005). Treatment for anxiety disorders requires that the patient return to their doctor or therapist for a prolonged period of time. Having to continuously return for treatment and pay high costs makes this disorder difficult to recover from (Maki et al, 2005).
Although anxiety has been found in both men and women, research has shown that women are more likely to experience higher levels than men, and at an earlier age
(Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley & Allen, 1998). Lewinsohn et al (1998) argued
Gender
5
that females not only experience more anxiety than their male counterparts, but they also begin to differ from boys at a very early age, so that by age 6, twice as many girls have reported experiencing high anxiety. Lewinsohn et al (1998) found little support for social factors and experience in predicting anxiety differences between sexes, thus lending support to the hypothesis that gender disposition influences anxiety levels. In addition to gender, Lewinsohn et al (1998) found that anxiety has a genetic influence rather than just an environmental one. Other research (Chappel, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi,
Newman, Gubi & McCann, 2005) has yielded similar results, which are consistent with gender differences and anxiety. Specifically, in a study investigating test anxiety,
Chappel et al (2005) found that females experienced higher levels of test anxiety when compared to their male counterparts. Their results showed that females tend to be more anxious during exams, but they actually showed higher mean GPA levels than men.
Given that the described research has suggested that women tend to experience higher levels of anxiety than men, but that men still experience anxiety, it seems important to investigate environmental factors.
One possible environmental factor for predicting the occurrence and prevalence of anxiety is parental influence, and more importantly parental marital status. Divorce often leaves children isolated from a particular parent, in which the two parents are no longer continuously present in the child’s life. Parental divorce may create feelings of hopelessness and loneliness for the child given that the child is rarely involved in this decision. Divorce between two adults usually occurs regardless of their child’s opinion, thus creating a situation in which the child has little or no control over the situation.
Chorpita & Barlow (1998) suggested that “uncontrollable events help to create feelings of
Gender
6
diminished control” (p. 6). Diminished control within family events has been shown to influence a child’s prevalence for developing internalizing problems (Chorpita & Barlow,
1998). Chorpita & Barlow (1998) found that anxiety levels increase as feelings of control decrease, thus suggesting that parental divorce may increase anxiety if the child feels that he/she has little control over the situation. In addition, Dearing, McCartney & Taylor
(2006) found that children from divorced families are more likely to develop emotional disorders including anxiety. Dearing, McCartney & Taylor (2006) argued that lack of control within families may be influenced by financial problems and parental marital status, and their research also supported the idea that lack of control directly relates to a child’s likelihood of developing anxiety.
Feldman & Vasquez (2003) suggested that family environment plays an important role in the development of anxiety disorders. They suggested that parents model anxious behaviors due to their own feelings of loss of control, which in turn generalize to their children. Feelings of diminished control within a marriage may influence feelings of uncontrollability for children, which may influence anxiety later in life. Feldman &
Vasquez (2003) suggested that lower levels of parental involvement and anxiety have shown direct connections. Parents who divorce will often find that they spend less time with their children due to custody arrangements. Therefore, it seems possible that children from divorced families may be at risk for developing more anxiety.
Although there are important findings, which highlight the prevalence for anxiety disorders in females, the relationship between parental factors such as divorce in addition to gender disposition has been investigated in past research. Rose & Rudolph (2006) suggested that sex differences have been largely overlooked in research investigating the
Gender
7
ways in which boys and girls cope with negative events. They found that boys and girls show different coping mechanisms in response to negative situations. Rose & Rudolph
(2006) also showed that females not only differed from males in the way that they cope with stressful events, but that females also perceive these events differently. In addition to their findings, which suggest that females experience higher levels of anxiety than men, Rose & Rudolph (2006) also argued that females are more likely to internalize their problems, while males tend to externalize their problems. Their research demonstrated that internalizing problems, which is characteristic of females, leads to the development of emotional disorders such as low self-esteem, anxiety and depression. In contrast, they found that males, who tend to externalize problems, show greater prevalence for the development of behavioral problems, such as aggression and anti-social conduct. These findings highlight the probability that parental conflict, which often leads to divorce, is internalized differently depending on gender (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Although males might experience negative feelings as a result of their parents’ divorce, they might express their emotions through behavioral outlets, thus protecting them against developing emotional problems. In contrast, females who experience parental divorce may internalize their feelings and develop emotional problems, thus creating a greater prevalence for the onset of anxiety (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).
Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley & Allen (1998) demonstrated that females are more likely to experience higher levels of anxiety when compared to males, however gender differences in response to aversive events (parental divorce) needs further clarification. Rose & Rudolph (2006) found evidence for female prevalence of emotional disorders, contrasting male prevalence for behavioral disorders. They enhanced previous
Gender
8
research on the study of the relationship process of girls and boys, and emphasized gender differences in response to stress, however they did not include parental divorce as a stressor and gender differences in response to it. Although the likelihood for the development of anxiety disorders and depression appears to be more prevalent in females due to their tendency to internalize problems, research regarding why is scarce.
Investigations regarding possible explanations for this phenomenon would serve useful in future research because therapy techniques might be more effective if they were tailored to gender. Barlow (2000) provided further support for the connection between anxiety and depression, with both being more prevalent in women. Other factors that might be related to depression and anxiety, including social involvement, financial debt, and relationship status were examined in the present study.
Chappel et al (2005) enhanced test anxiety research, and strengthened the relationship between gender and test anxiety. Their findings showed that GPA was also positively associated with test anxiety, but this relationship requires further investigation regarding other variables such as spending time with a significant other and quiet vs. loud study environments (e.g., number of roommates), both of which were investigated in the present study. Additional research is also needed to examine the coping skills and reactions of females and males from married and divorced parents. Reactions to stressful events and coping methods were investigated in the present study using open-ended questions. Given that divorce is common and often stressful, its’ effects on females vs. males have potentially useful implications for gender specific parent-child interactions and therapy after a divorce. In order to strengthen research on the causes and effects of
Gender
9
anxiety, the present study examined the relationship between parents’ marital status and gender as predictors of anxiety.
Hypotheses
In order to investigate the differences in anxiety levels among undergraduates at a private
Catholic college, the following hypotheses were tested:
(1) Compared with men, women will report higher levels of anxiety
(2) Compared with students with married parents, students with divorced parents will report higher levels of anxiety
(3) Compared with men with married parents, women with married parents, and men with divorced parents, women with divorced parents will report the highest levels of anxiety.
Method
Participants
Sixty college students (30 men & 30 women) volunteered to participate.
Participants were selected on various parts of the campus at Saint Mary’s College over a two-week period using haphazard sampling. Participants were approached and selected based on their time availability for completing a questionnaire. Thirty of the participants had married parents, and the remaining 30 had divorced parents. Of the sixty participants, between the ages of 18 and 40 years, 35 were Caucasian and 25 were of other ethnicities.
Thirty-nine participants did not owe money for student loans, and the remaining 21 participants had outstanding loans ranging from $2,000 to $80,000. Thirty-five participants were single and 25 were in a relationship, with number of roommates ranging
Gender
10
from zero to five, and GPA levels ranging from 2.0 to 4.0. All participants were treated in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct”
(American Psychological Association, 2002).
Materials
Ten questions measuring anxiety were derived from an existing scale
(http://ipip.ori.org/) in order to construct a new measurement instrument for a pilot study.
Ten additional questions were created for the pilot study for a total of 20 likert-scale questions, ranging from 1-6, which was from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Two additional open-ended questions, which were developed by the researcher after a thorough review of the research literature, were also used in the pilot study. Thus, the final measurement instrument used in the pilot study consisted of twenty likert-scale questions and two open-ended questions.
The original scale (http://ipip.ori.org/) was chosen as an accurate measure of anxiety based on its reliability of .87. The reliability for the 20 anxiety questions used in the pilot study had a reliability score of .91. One unreliable question was eliminated from the scale based on the pilot study data, which increased the reliability to .92. A content analysis was conducted on the 2 open-ended questions in the pilot study, and from the most common responses (worrying behaviors) to the question “During an exam, I feel…” one new likert-scale question (I feel worried while taking tests) was created for the present study. Six additional likert-scale questions were created based on the pilot study and a review of the literature, for a total of 25 likert-scale questions. The following likertscale questions were added to the final measurement instrument, “I have trouble relaxing while on vacation”, “I feel that others are judging my performance”, as well as the
Gender
11
following reverse-coded questions: “I feel comfortable initiating conversations with people I don’t know”, “I don’t worry about events that are beyond my control”, “I feel relaxed before an exam”, and “I find time to relax everyday”. Additionally, two new open-ended questions: “When I meet new people, I…” and “When I don’t get the grade I hoped for on an assignment, I…” were created for the present study based on the pilot study and a review of the literature. Thus, the final measurement instrument used for the present study consisted of 25 likert-scale questions (19 old & 6 new) and three openended questions (1 old & 2 new).
Data collection methods and results from the pilot study were used to make additional changes to the final survey. In the pilot study, participants were selected only in the library at Saint Mary’s College. The majority of students were studying at the time that they agreed to participate. In order to avoid a response set due to the possibility of rushing through a questionnaire in order to resume their work, participants who were not reading or studying were selected. Also, groups of students were approached for data collection in the pilot study. In order to avoid confounding findings due to social desirability factors in the present study, participants were selected individually, and preferably, while alone. In addition, data collection in the library was avoided due to the possibility of selecting participants with higher GPA’s than the general student average.
Finally, due to the type of emotion being measured (anxiety), participants were not selected from the library because the researchers wanted to avoid a reflection of homework related anxiety on survey responses. Therefore, participants for the present study were selected from different areas on campus in order to obtain findings, which accurately represent the attitudes and beliefs of SMC students.
Gender
12
Design and Procedure
Students were approached at various locations at Saint Mary’s College by using haphazard sampling. Among the 60 participants needed for the sample, 30 women and 30 men were needed. Also, 30 participants with married parents and 30 participants with divorced parents were needed. Thus, within the group of 60 participants needed for participation, 15 were required for each of the four subgroups (1) 15 females with married parents (2) 15 females with divorced parents (3) 15 males with married parents
(4) 15 males with divorced parents.
Participants were approached and asked if they would be able to complete a survey on the spot. Those who agreed to participate were given informed consent documents, and were given 2-5 minutes to read and sign them. After completing the informed consent, participants were given the questionnaire to complete at their own pace. All participants were cautioned that they had the right to discontinue their involvement in the study at any time. Following completion of the questionnaire, each participant was given a debriefing statement explaining the purpose of the research
(investigating anxiety), and was thanked for their involvement in the study.
Results
Participants
Frequencies were calculated for the sample of 60 participants (30 men and 30 women). All participants were students at Saint Mary’s College ranging in age from 18-
Gender
13
40. The majority of participants (58%) were Caucasian and the mean age was 23.33
(3.74). Fifty percent of the participants had married parents, and the remaining 50% had divorced parents. Fifty-eight percent of the participants were single, and the remaining
41% were in a relationship. Twenty-five percent of the participants had one roommate, and the remaining 75% reported having between one and five roommates. GPA’s ranged from 2.0 to 4.0, and the mean GPA was 3.05 (.48). The majority of participants (65%) did not owe money in student loans, and the remaining 35% had loans ranging from $2,000 to $80,000. The mean amount due in loans for all 60 participants was $7383.33
(15435.03).
Reliability of Measure
The reliability for the ten anxiety questions derived from the original scale
(http://ipip.ori.org/) was .87, however after creating an additional 10 questions for the pilot study, the reliability for the 20 anxiety questions was .91. One question was omitted after reviewing the reliability for the pilot study measurement instrument increasing the reliability to .92. The reliability for the 25 anxiety questions used for the present study was .94.
Correlations
In order to investigate the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted. A strong negative correlation (r= -.55) between gender and anxiety was significant at p
Running Head: GENDER AND PARENTAL
Gender and Parental Marital Status as Predictors of Anxiety among
Undergraduate Students
1
Gender
2
Abstract
In order to investigate anxiety levels of undergraduate students at Saint Mary’s College of California, a questionnaire was constructed based on previous pilot-study data.
Possible predictors of anxiety included gender and parents’ marital status. Women with divorced parents were hypothesized to have higher anxiety levels when compared to women with married parents, men with married parents, and men with divorced parents.
Other possible predictors including age, GPA, number of roommates, relationship status, amount due in student loans, and ethnicity were examined. Gender …show more content…
differences in anxiety levels were found, in which females showed higher levels than men. As hypothesized, females with divorced parents displayed the highest levels of anxiety when compared to all other groups.
Gender
3
Gender and Parental Marital Status as Predictors of Anxiety among
Undergraduate Students
Anxiety research has found that many people experience this emotion at uncomfortably high levels at some point in their lives, and that “anxiety is one of the most common emotional disorders in the United States” (Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn,
Seeley & Allen, 1998, p.
109). Therefore, the causes and effects of anxiety have remained topics of interest within personality studies. Barlow (2000) defined anxiety as a
“helpless state resulting from feelings of being unable to predict, control or obtain desired outcomes” (p. 1249). It is important to note that anxiety has its benefits. For example, increased anxiety has been shown to help individuals get through fearful or negative events, which serves a useful purpose (Barlow, 2000). The problem arises when anxiety persists for a long period of time after the stressful event has passed. Anxiety disorders are classified as “six months (or more) of persistent worry and prolonged physiological responses due to excessive anxiety in which the person can’t refrain from worry” (The
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders- IV, 2000).
Barlow (2000) proposed that anxiety arises from anticipating something negative or uncomfortable based on previous experience. Moderate anxiety levels …show more content…
prepare individuals to deal with situations by causing a physical response, such as increased heart-rate and energy, however, Barlow (2000) argued that higher levels of anxiety can actually cause the person to become overwhelmed, therefore increasing feelings of helplessness. The continuous interaction between anxiety and feelings of helplessness
Gender
4
cause the person to feel like they have no control over the situation, which results in either constant worry or avoiding the situation all together (Barlow, 2000).
Increased anxiety levels have been shown to increase “muscle tension, pulse rate, breathing, blood pressure, and perspiration” (Barlow, 2000, p. 1251), which can cause debilitation instead of control. Another explanation for the cause of anxiety disregards the situation that elevates this emotion. Freud (1926) proposed that “anxiety relates to the state and disregards the object or situation” (p. 491). He believed that anxiety protects us in situations that we think are threatening even if there is nothing to fear. Freud (1926) emphasized the ongoing nature of anxiety, in which people mentally prepare for the
“repetition of some particular significant experience” (p. 492). The repetitious nature of anxiety can cause people to develop physical responses associated with this emotion during situations that are similar to ones they have feared in the past. Experiencing these responses (increased heart rate, perspiration, etc.) on a regular basis can be overwhelming and difficult to control. Maki, Pollack & Otto (2000) suggested that anxiety
disorders have a reoccurring component, which causes people to eventually seek professional help.
Professional help involves the therapist recreating fearful events in the patients’ life until they are thought to be neutral (Maki et al, 2005). Treatment for anxiety disorders requires that the patient return to their doctor or therapist for a prolonged period of time. Having to continuously return for treatment and pay high costs makes this disorder difficult to recover from (Maki et al, 2005).
Although anxiety has been found in both men and women, research has shown that women are more likely to experience higher levels than men, and at an earlier age
(Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley & Allen, 1998). Lewinsohn et al (1998) argued
Gender
5
that females not only experience more anxiety than their male counterparts, but they also begin to differ from boys at a very early age, so that by age 6, twice as many girls have reported experiencing high anxiety. Lewinsohn et al (1998) found little support for social factors and experience in predicting anxiety differences between sexes, thus lending support to the hypothesis that gender disposition influences anxiety levels. In addition to gender, Lewinsohn et al (1998) found that anxiety has a genetic influence rather than just an environmental one. Other research (Chappel, Blanding, Silverstein, Takahashi,
Newman, Gubi & McCann, 2005) has yielded similar results, which are consistent with gender differences and anxiety. Specifically, in a study investigating test anxiety,
Chappel et al (2005) found that females experienced higher levels of test anxiety when compared to their male counterparts. Their results showed that females tend to be more anxious during exams, but they actually showed higher mean GPA levels than men.
Given that the described research has suggested that women tend to experience higher levels of anxiety than men, but that men still experience anxiety, it seems important to investigate environmental factors.
One possible environmental factor for predicting the occurrence and prevalence of anxiety is parental influence, and more importantly parental marital status. Divorce often leaves children isolated from a particular parent, in which the two parents are no longer continuously present in the child’s life. Parental divorce may create feelings of hopelessness and loneliness for the child given that the child is rarely involved in this decision. Divorce between two adults usually occurs regardless of their child’s opinion, thus creating a situation in which the child has little or no control over the situation.
Chorpita & Barlow (1998) suggested that “uncontrollable events help to create feelings of
Gender
6
diminished control” (p. 6). Diminished control within family events has been shown to influence a child’s prevalence for developing internalizing problems (Chorpita & Barlow,
1998). Chorpita & Barlow (1998) found that anxiety levels increase as feelings of control decrease, thus suggesting that parental divorce may increase anxiety if the child feels that he/she has little control over the situation. In addition, Dearing, McCartney & Taylor
(2006) found that children from divorced families are more likely to develop emotional disorders including anxiety. Dearing, McCartney & Taylor (2006) argued that lack of control within families may be influenced by financial problems and parental marital status, and their research also supported the idea that lack of control directly relates to a child’s likelihood of developing anxiety.
Feldman & Vasquez (2003) suggested that family environment plays an important role in the development of anxiety disorders. They suggested that parents model anxious behaviors due to their own feelings of loss of control, which in turn generalize to their children. Feelings of diminished control within a marriage may influence feelings of uncontrollability for children, which may influence anxiety later in life. Feldman &
Vasquez (2003) suggested that lower levels of parental involvement and anxiety have shown direct connections. Parents who divorce will often find that they spend less time with their children due to custody arrangements. Therefore, it seems possible that children from divorced families may be at risk for developing more anxiety.
Although there are important findings, which highlight the prevalence for anxiety disorders in females, the relationship between parental factors such as divorce in addition to gender disposition has been investigated in past research. Rose & Rudolph (2006) suggested that sex differences have been largely overlooked in research investigating the
Gender
7
ways in which boys and girls cope with negative events. They found that boys and girls show different coping mechanisms in response to negative situations. Rose & Rudolph
(2006) also showed that females not only differed from males in the way that they cope with stressful events, but that females also perceive these events differently. In addition to their findings, which suggest that females experience higher levels of anxiety than men, Rose & Rudolph (2006) also argued that females are more likely to internalize their problems, while males tend to externalize their problems. Their research demonstrated that internalizing problems, which is characteristic of females, leads to the development of emotional disorders such as low self-esteem, anxiety and depression. In contrast, they found that males, who tend to externalize problems, show greater prevalence for the development of behavioral problems, such as aggression and anti-social conduct. These findings highlight the probability that parental conflict, which often leads to divorce, is internalized differently depending on gender (Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Although males might experience negative feelings as a result of their parents’ divorce, they might express their emotions through behavioral outlets, thus protecting them against developing emotional problems. In contrast, females who experience parental divorce may internalize their feelings and develop emotional problems, thus creating a greater prevalence for the onset of anxiety (Rose & Rudolph, 2006).
Lewinsohn, Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley & Allen (1998) demonstrated that females are more likely to experience higher levels of anxiety when compared to males, however gender differences in response to aversive events (parental divorce) needs further clarification. Rose & Rudolph (2006) found evidence for female prevalence of emotional disorders, contrasting male prevalence for behavioral disorders. They enhanced previous
Gender
8
research on the study of the relationship process of girls and boys, and emphasized gender differences in response to stress, however they did not include parental divorce as a stressor and gender differences in response to it. Although the likelihood for the development of anxiety disorders and depression appears to be more prevalent in females due to their tendency to internalize problems, research regarding why is scarce.
Investigations regarding possible explanations for this phenomenon would serve useful in future research because therapy techniques might be more effective if they were tailored to gender. Barlow (2000) provided further support for the connection between anxiety and depression, with both being more prevalent in women. Other factors that might be related to depression and anxiety, including social involvement, financial debt, and relationship status were examined in the present study.
Chappel et al (2005) enhanced test anxiety research, and strengthened the relationship between gender and test anxiety. Their findings showed that GPA was also positively associated with test anxiety, but this relationship requires further investigation regarding other variables such as spending time with a significant other and quiet vs. loud study environments (e.g., number of roommates), both of which were investigated in the present study. Additional research is also needed to examine the coping skills and reactions of females and males from married and divorced parents. Reactions to stressful events and coping methods were investigated in the present study using open-ended questions. Given that divorce is common and often stressful, its’ effects on females vs. males have potentially useful implications for gender specific parent-child interactions and therapy after a divorce. In order to strengthen research on the causes and effects of
Gender
9
anxiety, the present study examined the relationship between parents’ marital status and gender as predictors of anxiety.
Hypotheses
In order to investigate the differences in anxiety levels among undergraduates at a private
Catholic college, the following hypotheses were tested:
(1) Compared with men, women will report higher levels of anxiety
(2) Compared with students with married parents, students with divorced parents will report higher levels of anxiety
(3) Compared with men with married parents, women with married parents, and men with divorced parents, women with divorced parents will report the highest levels of anxiety.
Method
Participants
Sixty college students (30 men & 30 women) volunteered to participate.
Participants were selected on various parts of the campus at Saint Mary’s College over a two-week period using haphazard sampling. Participants were approached and selected based on their time availability for completing a questionnaire. Thirty of the participants had married parents, and the remaining 30 had divorced parents. Of the sixty participants, between the ages of 18 and 40 years, 35 were Caucasian and 25 were of other ethnicities.
Thirty-nine participants did not owe money for student loans, and the remaining 21 participants had outstanding loans ranging from $2,000 to $80,000. Thirty-five participants were single and 25 were in a relationship, with number of roommates ranging
Gender
10
from zero to five, and GPA levels ranging from 2.0 to 4.0. All participants were treated in accordance with the “Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct”
(American Psychological Association, 2002).
Materials
Ten questions measuring anxiety were derived from an existing scale
(http://ipip.ori.org/) in order to construct a new measurement instrument for a pilot study.
Ten additional questions were created for the pilot study for a total of 20 likert-scale questions, ranging from 1-6, which was from strongly disagree to strongly agree. Two additional open-ended questions, which were developed by the researcher after a thorough review of the research literature, were also used in the pilot study. Thus, the final measurement instrument used in the pilot study consisted of twenty likert-scale questions and two open-ended questions.
The original scale (http://ipip.ori.org/) was chosen as an accurate measure of anxiety based on its reliability of .87. The reliability for the 20 anxiety questions used in the pilot study had a reliability score of .91. One unreliable question was eliminated from the scale based on the pilot study data, which increased the reliability to .92. A content analysis was conducted on the 2 open-ended questions in the pilot study, and from the most common responses (worrying behaviors) to the question “During an exam, I feel…” one new likert-scale question (I feel worried while taking tests) was created for the present study. Six additional likert-scale questions were created based on the pilot study and a review of the literature, for a total of 25 likert-scale questions. The following likertscale questions were added to the final measurement instrument, “I have trouble relaxing while on vacation”, “I feel that others are judging my performance”, as well as the
Gender
11
following reverse-coded questions: “I feel comfortable initiating conversations with people I don’t know”, “I don’t worry about events that are beyond my control”, “I feel relaxed before an exam”, and “I find time to relax everyday”. Additionally, two new open-ended questions: “When I meet new people, I…” and “When I don’t get the grade I hoped for on an assignment, I…” were created for the present study based on the pilot study and a review of the literature. Thus, the final measurement instrument used for the present study consisted of 25 likert-scale questions (19 old & 6 new) and three openended questions (1 old & 2 new).
Data collection methods and results from the pilot study were used to make additional changes to the final survey. In the pilot study, participants were selected only in the library at Saint Mary’s College. The majority of students were studying at the time that they agreed to participate. In order to avoid a response set due to the possibility of rushing through a questionnaire in order to resume their work, participants who were not reading or studying were selected. Also, groups of students were approached for data collection in the pilot study. In order to avoid confounding findings due to social desirability factors in the present study, participants were selected individually, and preferably, while alone. In addition, data collection in the library was avoided due to the possibility of selecting participants with higher GPA’s than the general student average.
Finally, due to the type of emotion being measured (anxiety), participants were not selected from the library because the researchers wanted to avoid a reflection of homework related anxiety on survey responses. Therefore, participants for the present study were selected from different areas on campus in order to obtain findings, which accurately represent the attitudes and beliefs of SMC students.
Gender
12
Design and Procedure
Students were approached at various locations at Saint Mary’s College by using haphazard sampling. Among the 60 participants needed for the sample, 30 women and 30 men were needed. Also, 30 participants with married parents and 30 participants with divorced parents were needed. Thus, within the group of 60 participants needed for participation, 15 were required for each of the four subgroups (1) 15 females with married parents (2) 15 females with divorced parents (3) 15 males with married parents
(4) 15 males with divorced parents.
Participants were approached and asked if they would be able to complete a survey on the spot. Those who agreed to participate were given informed consent documents, and were given 2-5 minutes to read and sign them. After completing the informed consent, participants were given the questionnaire to complete at their own pace. All participants were cautioned that they had the right to discontinue their involvement in the study at any time. Following completion of the questionnaire, each participant was given a debriefing statement explaining the purpose of the research
(investigating anxiety), and was thanked for their involvement in the study.
Results
Participants
Frequencies were calculated for the sample of 60 participants (30 men and 30 women). All participants were students at Saint Mary’s College ranging in age from 18-
Gender
13
40. The majority of participants (58%) were Caucasian and the mean age was 23.33
(3.74). Fifty percent of the participants had married parents, and the remaining 50% had divorced parents. Fifty-eight percent of the participants were single, and the remaining
41% were in a relationship. Twenty-five percent of the participants had one roommate, and the remaining 75% reported having between one and five roommates. GPA’s ranged from 2.0 to 4.0, and the mean GPA was 3.05 (.48). The majority of participants (65%) did not owe money in student loans, and the remaining 35% had loans ranging from $2,000 to $80,000. The mean amount due in loans for all 60 participants was $7383.33
(15435.03).
Reliability of Measure
The reliability for the ten anxiety questions derived from the original scale
(http://ipip.ori.org/) was .87, however after creating an additional 10 questions for the pilot study, the reliability for the 20 anxiety questions was .91. One question was omitted after reviewing the reliability for the pilot study measurement instrument increasing the reliability to .92. The reliability for the 25 anxiety questions used for the present study was .94.
Correlations
In order to investigate the relationship between variables, Pearson’s correlation analysis was conducted. A strong negative correlation (r= -.55) between gender and anxiety was significant at p