study com 204

Exam Notes

Basic APA Style
• In text o (Hill,2013) quotation (Hill, 2013.p.145)

Critical: Takes time and implies careful attention looking below the surface to find the motivation and context as well as what assumptions are involved and what is not there.

Criticism:
• A close analysis of a text resulting in evaluation. o A close analysis and judgment of something
• Not always negative, you can evaluate a text and be positive. o Involves both positive negative or even neutral feedback o Not just taking something at face value, you’re thinking critically o Looking beneath the surface

Critical Questions you might ask.
• What are the implicit and explicit assumptions in this article and are they reasonable?
• How reliable is the source of this argument bias/who is the source
• What’s the purpose of this argument/ goal/ consequences?
• Why is this argument being made? What context or motives might have prompted it?

Barnet and Bedau’s Components of Critical thinking
• Imagination
• Analysis
• Evaluation

Examples that require critical thinking
• Riddles

Argument
• A course of reasoning
• Making a case in favor or against something
• A critical claim with support and reasoning o Example maymester
Text
• Any sort of artifact that can be studied for information
• Speech Essay novals
• Movies, tv shows, songs, press release, corporate annual report
• Anything that uses communication to get their point across.

Thesis
• A one sentence summary of your argument.
• Will make a claim about the text you’re looking at, it should take a position and then it should provide reasoning for that position.
• Summarizes your overall argument with both your position and reasoning.

Rhetoric
• The strategic use of symbols to persuade o But it doesn’t always have to be to persuade, it can be used to teach o Doesn’t have to be words it can be pictures
• Rhetoric is the argument
• People that use rhetoric o Advertisement o Politicians
• Finding the available means of persuasion in a given equation. (Aristotle definition)

Quantitative Research
• Looking at numeric data
• Running tests, asking people to rank things or say how they feel about something on a scale of 1-10
• Statistical analysis
• Counting, measuring, running statistical analysis and you’re trying describing the situation to predict the future.
• Often leads to a hypotheses or a theory. Something that can be repeated and used as an experiment to find more information to build on your hypothesis. o Prediction
Qualitative Research

• Tries to evaluate a situation using nonnumeric data
• Examining nonnumeric data o Texts, speech,
• Understanding the situation at hand
• Rheotical methods are qualitative, looking at words rather than numbers
Qualitative Research
• Often leads to a hypothesis or theory something that’s testable and you can repeat
General principles of argument building:
• Includes a thesis, critical claim, research, evidence, and examples.

Part 2

Writing Maxims
• Your writing competes for people’s attention
• Reflects your competent
• Less credible less intelligent
• Must be Instantly understood
• Eliminate ambiguity o More than one meaning for what you are saying o Homophones (HOMONYMS)
 Words that sound the same but spelled differently

Use active language
• It will be argued that Purdue should have a better emergency plan
• It will argue that Purdue should have a better emergency plan
• Purdue should have a better emergency plan o Simple words are better
• Never use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun

Words to remember and not to get confused
• Compose vs Comprise o The parts compose the whole o The whole comprises the parts
 Example
 Kentucky is composed of 120 countries
 Kentucky comprises 120 countries.
• Affects vs Effects o Affect is usually a verb:
 The new law will never affect me o Effect is usually a noun:
 The law’s effect will be to reduce drunk driving.
• Lead vs Led o It’s annoying to run out of lead in your pencil o Katie Douglas let Purdue in the NCAA women’s basketball champs
Words ending in “S”
• Does the “s” indicate only a plural? No apostrophe
• Does the “s” indicate an abbreviated “s” or “has”? apostrophe
• Does the “s” indicate ownership or possession? Apostrophe

Editing tips
• Don’t rely on spellcheck
• Have some else read it and proofread it.
• Double checking words that sounds like another
• Read slowly to catch all mistakes
• Most important thing to remember while editing o USE A DICTIONARY

Media criticism
• Takes entertainment media as a text o How they portray certain parts of society
 i.g How they portray movies
• Criticism of the news and media o The way that system constitutes what we consider to be news
3 questions
• Where does news come from?
• Who decides what you see/hear/read?
• What are the functions of fact and opinion

2 classic studies
1. Warren Breed 1995
a. “Social control in the newsroom”
i. News is produced by reporters ii. Reporters are directed/influenced by
1. Editors
2. Newspaper policy
3. Other reporters iii. Reporters learn from by osmosis
1. They read how other reporters write
2. They are steered by
a. Editor preferences
b. The desire ti see their stories be “news”
c. And the desire to succeed.
Sacred Cow
• Comes from the religion Hinduism o They hold cows sacred
• News media are often hesitant in publishing anything that will portray any person that is well-liked in the community or support the newspaper/media financially in a negative way. o Local figure
 Joe Perterno

2. David Manning White, 1950
a. The “Gate Keeper” study
i. There are a series of “gate keepers”
1. Main source of control of what ends up being reported and what doesn’t end up being reported ii. Each has the power to define what is or isn’t news iii. If the gate keeper rejects a “story, “the work of all those who preceded him in reporting and transmitting the story is negated” iv. Decisions are
1. Highly subjective
2. Based on experiences, attitudes, expectations of gate keeper Facts vs Opinion in the news
• Opinion writing in the newspaper o Editorials
 Official statements of the news paper o Letters to the editor
 Responses from of the reader. o Columns/opinions/ Pieces/op-ed
 Essays gathered from other media outlets or the public
• Do not reflect the opinion of the newspapers outside opinions
• Fact o Front page news

Part 3

Rhetoric Plato
Allegory of the Cave represents an extended metaphor that is to contrast the way in which we perceive and believe in what is reality. The thesis behind his allegory is the basic tenets that all we perceive are imperfect "reflections" of the ultimate Forms, which subsequently represent truth and reality.

• The Matrix o The movie suggest that if people were given the choice they would choose to know the truth o Shallowness of Rhetoric
• Slogan We poked you in 84 will poke you again in 86 o Plato had a problem with this since it lacked knowledge
Dialectic:
• Discussion or debate, the way that Aristotle wrote Gorgias

Difference Among Gorgoas, Aristotle, and Plato:
• Plato was Aristotle’s teacher and firmly disbelieved in rhetoric and hated calling it a sham and cookery while Aristotle had a better understanding of rhetoric and wrote the most important book over it. Gorgias was a sophist and a teacher of rhetoric whom Plato wrote about in order to make him sound stupid. o socrates gets Gorgais to admit that there are two types of persuasion
 Knowledge (convay some type of knowledge)
 Belief without knowledge
• Scaritise gets Gorgias to admit rhetoric is belief without knowledge
• Discover a way to pursue the ignorant that he has more knowledge than his audience o MAJOR PROBLEM PLATO HAS WITH RHETORIC
 Plato has an analogy which he presents through socrates
• Analogy o Soul/Politics o Physical Body and the Soul= politics
 Within the soul/politics
• Through legislation (law)
• Human body exercise or gymnastic o So you establish correct conditions in the body through excersize/gymnastic o You establish correct conditions in politics by creating legislations or laws o SHAM
 Sophistry
• Manipulating (Politics)
• Make-up Cosmetics (Soul) o Corrects Unhealthy conditions
 Medicine (Body)
 Justice (Politics) o Cookery
 Fake way to correct unhealthy conditions
• Making your own remedies- not the correct way. May seem like it works but in the end it will not correct conditions in the body
• Main point to remember o Plato compares Rhetoric to Cookery. o Belief without Knowledge o Inferior to dialectic
 Will not help people reach truth in the way that dialectic will o An experience in producing a sort of delight and gratification o Ultimately rhetoricians do not have any power

Aristotle:
• argues that Rhetoric is the factory of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion
• Its important to acknolwge both sides of the argument but still side on the moral side
• Rhetoric doesn’t require success- is not always going to successfully persuasive
• Useful skill to have

Artistic Proofs
• Nonartistic proof o Using some sort of evidence (outside source) o Does not invent his/herself
 Eyewitness testimonies
 DNA
 Statisics used from an outside source
• Artistic proof o Something that the speaker creates his/herself o Invented.

Ethos/Logos/Pathos (3 MAJOR ARTISIC PROOFS)
• Ethos o Appeal to speaker credibility character trustworthiness o Ethics remember to speaker ethics or moral character
• Logos o Use of logical reasoning
• Pathos o Emotional Appeal Logos
Fear appeal
Reliability of Evidence
• Soundness of reasoning o If something is sound, that means it is scientifically true
• Truth
• Validity
• Syllogism
Three divisions of rhetoric
• Ceremonial o either praises or censures somebody.
 Speech at a funeral or memorial service
 Present
 911 speech example o audience is just an observer o Must know the deeds of person
• Forensic Rhetoric o Used when audience is judging someone in the past
 Court of law
 Appeal a grade in the past
• Past, trying to convice teacher grade is unfair or unjudged
 PAST
• Political Rhetoric o To do or not to do o Judge of something that should or shouldn’t be done, asking for some type of action o Speech trying to get people involved in your organization o Expediency or the Harm
 MUST INCLUDE HARMFUL AND THE RESOURCES INVLOVED
 WHAT WOULD BE Necessary
Epiloge/ Conclusion
• Make the audience like you/dislike your opponent (ethos)
• Magnify or minimize the leading facts (legos)
• Excite the state of emotions of ur audience (Pathos)
• then try refresh their memories

Classic Syllogism
• Forms of arguments with two statements that lead up to the conclusion of the statement o All Americans are rude o Jenny is An American o Jenny Is Rude

Enthymeme (From Aristotle)
• When one part of reasoning is removed to basically assume something o All Americans are rude [Andrea is American] Andrea is rude o Of course Jenny is rude, shes an American

Fallacies to Avoid
• Post Hoc, ergo propter o After the fact, therefore of the fact o after this, therefore, because of this
• Red Herrings (More emotional extracting ) emotional o is used to refer to something that misleads or distracts from the relevant or important issue
• Pooh-poohing (Just making any response because it doesn’t benefit you)
• Straw person

Methaphor

The structure and relationships metaphor creates are not partial, but total

How to state a metaphor: Simple sentence communicating a relationship between tenor and vehicle

e.f., war is hell.
Tenor: War
Vehicle: Hell

Metaphor is not necessariy connected to imagery.
Metaphor structures our thought processes (L&J: “understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another”).
Metaphor is not only intentional figure of speech added to a message (that is, it is not “form” as opposed to “information”, but BOTH).

Metaphor is compact and vivid

Orientation Metaphor
- Has a physical basis
- Happy is up/Sad is down
- Control is up/Lack of control is down
- Conservative is right/liberal is left

Metaphor simultaneously obscures and brings to light
Good is light; evil is dark
Knowledgr is light; ignorance is dark

Disnyland metaphor conflict

Drama
- Cast members
- On stage
- Central casting
- Costiunes
- Guests
Family
- Teamwork
- Family picnic
- Disney family
- Walt as father
- Employees as his children

May 28, 2014
Kenneth Burke (1931)
1. Most important rhetorical theorist of the 20th century
2. Connected literary criticism with
3. S
Contrasts between
Form
1. The creation and satisfaction of an appetite in the reader/hearer
2. Bring repeated enjoyment
3. Examples: sitcoms, the New Yorker, music
Information
1. Relies more heavily on fact
2. Once consumed, is no longer interesting
3. Examples: reality TV shows, USA today, e-mail.

Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca (1958)
1. The new rhetoric
2. Aristotle’s ceremonial rhetoric “forms central part of the act of persuasion” by laying a foundation (foundation for persuasion)
3. Advocate rational arguments appealing to a “universal audience”

Bitzer (1968)
1. “The Rhetorical Situation”: a context of factors that “strongly invite utterance.” The situation actually calls the rhetoric into existence.
2. Three elements of a rhetorical situation:
a. Exigency
b. Audience
c. Constraints.

Gearhart (1979)/Foss & Griffin (1995)
1. All rhetoric and all attempts to persuade others are violent. (Gearhart)
2. Rhetoric is patriarchal in its desire to change and control audience, devaluing their perspectives
3. Alternative: “invitational rhetoric”
4. I.R is similar to patlotic rhetoric.

Cheney (1991)
1. Rhetoric is not only individual, but organizational
2. Entire organizations/ corporations can “speak” with a single voice
3. Key questions to ask of org. rhet.:
a. Who determines the organization’s message? Is it in any way “representative” of organizational members
b. How (if at all) cans individual reply to the organizational voice?