Jonathan Edwards Research Paper

English Department
University of Heidelberg
HS Literature: Science and Religion
Instructor: Dr. Prof. Jan Stievermann
WS 11/12

Jonathan Edwards: The Theory of Conversion and His Disposition towards Science

Angela Abram
Am Güterbahnhof 26, 69181 Leimen [e-mail] English philology, semester: 5
Matriculation number: 2828314
April 9th, 2012

1. Introduction 3

2. Jonathan Edwards 4
2.1. His Life and Calling
2.2. The Conversion Experience 6

3. Edward’s Disposition towards Science 10 3.1. Science as a Way to Know God
3.2. Book of Nature vs. Book of God 13

4. Is Empiricism Important? 14

5. Jonathan Edwards: A Scientist
and Christian 18

6. Conclusion 21

Bibliography 23

Honor Pledge 24

1. Introduction

Throughout the centuries the relationship between science and religion has been at times harmonious and at other times at odds with each other. Even today we still find many religious groups who see science as a threat to their belief system. Among these groups are Evangelical Christians. We hear of concerned mothers protesting against the teaching of evolution in front schools, pastors warning their congregation about the dangers of science and many more instances of believer trying to “fight against” scientific findings that are not compatible with the word of God. However, a closer look reveals that there are and have been indeed many strong professing Christians who did not view science as a threat to their religion, but rather as more proof for the existence of God and a spiritual realm. Many of us have heard of Jonathan Edwards. He is one of the most famous preachers in Church History and is perhaps most known for is his sermon ‘Sinners in the hands of an angry God’. As a devout Christian and fervent soul winner, Edwards lived his life in order to share the Gospel with the lost. There are no doubts about his devotion and loyalty to Christ. He believed the Bible was the infallible word of God. He taught the redemptive work of Christ. He warned people of an existing hell which would be the eternity for unrepentant sinners. Although Edwards was very much rooted and grounded in God’s word, he was also fascinated by science. There are a few scientific writings of his in which he tried to harmonize the beauty of nature with the proof for a living and loving God. We realize that not all Christians in the 17th and 18th century were opposed to science and wanted to rid the world of its influence. Although Edwards was a proponent of science he still submitted every finding to the word of God. The Bible was still his ultimate book of authority. The findings of science were simply evidence for the infallibleness of the scriptures. In this paper I will focus on Jonathan Edwards and his theory of conversion and his view of science.
Evidence and empiricism are very important in the realm of science. Science is based on experience, findings and evidence. Without empiricism science would merely be speculation and not fact. Edward’s doctrine of conversion is important as it seeks for evidence of a true born again Christian. We can say that in order to identify a true believer one has to engage in scientific methods if you will. At first glance one might even come to see a contradiction between Edwards ‘view of conversion and his ways of looking at science. On the one hand Edward’s places strong emphasis on the signs and evidence of a person that has been born again by the spirit of God. One has to closely watch and examine such a person to truly be able to tell whether he is really saved or a false convert. On the other hand Edward’s seems to not place a lot of emphasis on empiricism and evidence in nature and scientific findings. Therefore one might ask: Why does Edwards stress the importance of empiricism and evidence in the area of religion and seem to ignore it in scientific
endeavors. I will try to show that these seeming contradictions are only on the surface. A closer look reveals that Edward’s soteriology and his scientific disposition are compatible and do not lead to any contradictions. I will go about by firstly mentioning some of the more crucial points in his biography. It is always important to consider a person’s life and the crucial events that shaped his character when we examine the theology and beliefs of them. Afterwards I will address Edwards’s soteriology and the most important question surrounding this: How do we know that a person has truly received Christ? In my third point we will look at Edward’s disposition towards science. What exactly was his stance? In this chapter I will analyze some of his scientific works to draw a conclusion of his thoughts about science. Furthermore I will explain the hierarchy of science or the book of nature and the word of God. Are science and the Bible on the same level or does one dominate the other? In the following point I will compare Edward’s type of empiricism when it comes to salvation and when dealing with science. I will show how Edward’s is consistent in his thinking and does not employ evidence and empiricism when he wants to. Afterwards I will draw parallels between Jonathan Edwards as a scientist and as a Christian. I will show in what ways his religious belief shapes his scientific thinking and vice versa. Last but not least I will summarize my main arguments and offer a conclusion.

2. Jonathan Edwards
2.1. His Life and Calling
Before engaging in the teachings of Jonathan Edwards, I will briefly talk about his upbringing and the teachings that had an effect on his life. Edwards was born on October 5th, 1703. His parents had fled from England to America in order to have religious freedom. Since Edwards was born into a family of pastors, one can say his fate was already determined. He was to become a pastor once old enough and follow in his forbears ' footsteps. Thus from early on Jonathan Edwards was introduced to the Bible and his education geared "toward his being admitted to college and training for a ministerial vocation" (Thuesen, 2005, p. 17) Every week Jonathan attended a church his father pastored. It was in church that he witnessed revivals and people coming to know Christ. It was here that he learned about God’s providence and his will. “Edwards also inherited the Calvinistic orthodoxy of New England, its grandeur and its tensions” (Minkema 2005, p. 1). Theology was used in order to explain everything- human nature, redemption through Christ, inexplicable occurrences in nature etc. “Seemingly mundane natural phenomena and human events were seen as “illustrative providences” that contained supernatural messages of reward, punishment, and warning” (Minkma 2005, p. 1). From early on in life Edwards not only had access to Calvinistic doctrines, but also was very much influenced by it which we will see in later chapters (Kuklick, 1985, p. 15) However, the theology of the New England Puritans faced its challenges from within and outside. At the end of the 17th century, for example, the Massachussetts Bay charter changed its church policy and only granted full church members a position within the church. Because of this new rule fewer descendants of the Puritans wanted to join church. Pastors and religious leaders were slowly losing their influence on their religious and political culture. During this time different measures had to be sought out in order to alleviate membership requirements. The Half- Way Covenant of 1662 demanded an amendment of church practices and reevaluation of salvation. Jonathan Edwards could observe the “tension between church and society” (Minkema 2005, p. 2) in his father Timothy Edwards and his grandfather Stoddard Edwards. While Edward’s father was in favor of a self- governing church, his grandfather Stoddard strove for a hierarchy from within the church that would enforce people to adhere to church policy and their rules. Although both fervent preachers they both held a different view on conversion and “admission to the church” (Minkema 2005, p. 2). Timothy Edwards was not interested in the various steps that led to a person’s conversion. However, people that wanted to become church members or hold any position within the church were still watched and examined carefully by the pastor and other church members. In addition, a person who claimed to have been saved had to give a detailed testimony of his salvation before becoming a church member. Jonathan Edward’s grandfather, on the other hand, saw the order and the steps of conversion of great importance but made church membership more accessible (Thuesen, 2005, p. 17ff) In later writing, we can see how these tensions affected Jonathan Edwards. In his Personal Narrative we read that Jonathan himself doubted the Calvinistic teachings as times. He wanted to learn more about these doctrines through study and analyzing his own nature. By the time Edwards enrolled at the Connecticut Collegiate School, New England was experiencing a “growing diversity of opinion on theological topics- from the nature of God and the Trinity to the terms of salvation to the nature of the church” (Minkema 2005, p. 3). Even in College Edwards began to be confronted with new findings in physics and psychology. But according to Edwards, these new discoveries and the biblical teachings could be harmonized: “Newton’s universal laws confirmed to Edwards the wisdom and benevolence of the Creator; Locke’s psychology, how God communicated to “perceiving being”’ and Berkeley’s philosophy, the immanence of God in all reality.” (Minkema 2005, p. 3).
During this time colleges were slowly replacing Petrus Ramus and Aristotelian science with works by Isaac Newton and John Locke. Different fields such as logic, metaphysics, psychology etc. were beginning to become more modernized. However these new scientific advances did not threaten Jonathan Edwards’s biblical upbringing and his Calvinistic doctrine. Instead he tried to use these new findings in order to learn more about the nature of God and his work. One might have to add that “Edward’s response to the intellectual trends of his day would result in a reconceptualization of piety, and the shift in Edward’s vision stimulated by new horizons in science and philosophy, permitted new possibilities for understanding and describing conversion” (Knutson 2011, p. 55). Thuesen, however, states that "Edwards (...) seemded torn between two philosphical worlds: the tradition of Protestant scholasticism and the new republic of Em;ightenment letters" (Thuesen, 2005, p. 21) In 1720 Jonathan Edwards completed his undergraduate studies and began his graduate degree. During these years Edwards gained more spiritual and intellectual knowledge. He wrote books on a number of topics such as “cosmology, being, natural philosophy, light, optics, atoms, and the nature of the mind” (Minkema 2005, p. 3). Most of these texts were completed in 1732 and were to underline and accentuate God’s transcendence and excellence (Whimann). Edwards also “developed the concept that all reality is an idea in the mind of God, even that “space is God,” and that spirit, rather than matter, is true substance. This idealism- the notion that God upholds reality from moment to moment- became a signature feature of his thought.” (Minkema 2005, p. 4). One can see how Edwards’s scientific and philosophical understanding influenced his theology and vice versa. Jean- Pierre Martin writes that “ the thought of Edwards in conveniently defined- if only for padogogical purposes- as a remarkable almalgation of old-style Calvinism and modern eighteenth century developments proceeding mainly from the contributions of Newton and Locke” (Martin, 2003, p. 247). On the same note Erdt asserts: “ He defended a Calvinist heritage that rapidly was losing primacy in his own country and had been long beset by sophisticated assailants abroad; he admired the new learning, and was a man of letters” (Erdt, 1980, xi); and Thuesen confirms: "All his life, Edwards was torn between Puritan traditionalism with its roots in the premodern heritage of Western Christian thought, and Enlightenment rationalism, with its critical assumptions that would eventuate in modern skepticism" (Thuesen, 2005, p. 16ff.) While searching the scriptures Edwards was beginning to see God’s nature and his reality. While visiting his parents during his school break Edwards had a religious experience which shaped his view of God. As Jonathan was walking through the fields he felt God’s “majestic meekness” and his “awful sweetness”. After this incident Edwards began to preach for small groups. He also started writing private his “Miscellanies”, his own personal devotions. In 1726 Edwards was ordained to be the Pastor at his grandfather’s church in Northampton. A few months after that he married his wife Sarah Pierpont. New responsibilities awaited Edwards. He now had to prepare and deliver sermons, pastor his church members and organize other events. His personal time meditating and reading had to be put to the side. Being involved in many revivals, Edwards often witnessed people crying and shouting and supposedly being "touched by God". While in an emotional frenzy they claimed to have been saved , however, without "bringing forth good fruit" (Matt 9:16). In his Religious Affections, Edwards deals with 12 signs that were to be seen as signs of true regeneration in order to distinguish between a true and false conversion. For Edwards a true conversion was not about experiencing just any kind of feelings, but the right kind of emotions (Smith et al, 1995,xix; Goen, 1972, p. 25)
1.2. The Conversion Experience
Jonathan Edwards had a Calvinistic view of salvation. In order for a person who is spiritually dead in trespasses and sin to be born again, a sovereign God must supernaturally intervene. Edwards zealously preached sola gratia and sola fide and solus Christus. It is solely by God’s grace, without a person’s cooperation, that a person can be saved. The Holy Spirit moves within the sinful soul and creates faith within making him trust the Christ’s finished work on the cross as the final payment for his sins. Once a person has been regenerated by the Holy Spirit they have a new nature, a new heart. They now have a desire for the God that saved them and his word. This point was very crucial for Edwards. A person that has truly been born again by the Spirit of God will exhibit change. What kind of change? A true Christian will adhere to God’s word and keep his commandments. Where once a sinner loved sin and sought after lawlessness, he now hates sin and strives for sanctification. Where once a sinner ran from a holy and righteous God, he now clings to the cross as he knows it is here that he finds mercy and grace. However, a saved person does not lose his sinful nature. He might still slip into sin and grieve the Holy Spirit. But he will find pleasure in his sinful ways. A Christian will want to please his maker. This change of heart and evidence for conversion was something every believer would have had to experience. If a person claimed to be saved and they did not have the performance to follow, many Puritans questioned their actual salvation. Maybe they felt something, or had a spiritual experience, but this was not God the Creator. When a sovereign God reaches down into one’s life and quickens them, they are a changed person. They can no longer be the same. On the surface there might seem to be inconsistencies in Edward’s theology. While he stresses the idea presented in Ephesians 2:8-9 “For by grace are ye saved through faith and that not of yourselves it is the gift of God, not of works lest any man should boast” (King James Bible), he seems to put a lot of emphasis on a Christian’s outward performance and his works. We know that salvation has nothing to do with what a person does, but with what Christ has done. He is our atonement and redemption. It is Jesus Christ alone, minus our good works. However, Edwards is not trying to say that a Christian has to work for his salvation. One is saved by accepting Christ as their Lord and savior as the only payment for one’s sins. Boasting in one’s own accomplishments is excluded. Good works and an obedient performance are merely the outcome of a person that has been regenerated. His writing Religious Affections, in which he mentions 12 signs, which point to true piety, has a somewhat psychological nuance. Roger A. Ward mentions that "in this text Edwards uses and quotes more sources than any of his other writings. such as many Puritan divines or the sixteenth century Platonist John Smith. Many of Edwards writings are based on other people 's ideas and dispositions. Edwards is known for adopting the thoughts of others and refurbishing them into his own where he saw fit. In Religious Affections, Edwards endeavors to showcase the saved person’s spiritual growth and tries to help the individual fathom divine greatness (Whitmann). When understanding the “object of love” (Ward, 2008, p. 8) the individual will experience affections such as love, joy, peace and other fruits of the Spirit. Edwards wanted each individual to experience God outwardly and inwardly. As the saint observes creation he hill acquire a deeper knowledge of his Creator. As a result, he will grow in the love and appreciation for his Maker. At the same time, however, the saint undergoes a psychological and inward change as the comprehension of this deity changes his heart, soul and mind (Goen, 1972, p. 27) In his Religious Affections, Edwards states that “the change made by this spiritual opening of the eyes in conversion, would be much greater, and more remarkable, every way, than if a man, who had been born blind…then at once should have the sense of seeing imparted to him, in the midst of the clear light of the sun, discovering a world of visible objects.” In Edward’s words a converted soul is able to look at the world through different eyes.
He can now see things he could not discern before. A born again Christian now finds himself in the will of God and they begin a new life with God as their heavenly Father (Erdt 1980, p. 25; Knutson 2011, p. 1). By drawing parallels of a blind man receiving his sight and God opening s lost person’s eyes through conversion, Edwards is not only showcasing God’s graciousness, but also his power. However, Edwards did not put a lot of emphasis on the Puritan “strict order of preparatory stages” which many preachers of the generation before Edwards stressed. Instead, in Religious Affections, he tries to describe the different changes a converted soul undergoes and how he can understand his
transformation. Jonathan Edwards placed importance on a saved person’s own experience with God Almighty. This person should also be conscious of his spiritual development. In Emerson’s Compensation he talks about “the crack[s] in everything God has made” (Emersion). According to Edwards these so called “cracks” should slowly become intelligible for believers. As God reveals more things about the world to the saints he experiences spiritual growth and he starts adapting new ways of looking at and understanding life. As a result, he develops a new relationship with the world he lives in (Brown 2005, p. 93; Knutson 2011, p. 3). In Religious Affections Jonathan Edwards also mentions the new spiritual sense which yields affection, an affection for God and his universe. This spiritual sense, however, “is not a new faculty of understanding, but it is a foundation laid in the nature of the soul, for a new kind of exercise of the same faculty of understanding” (Edwards, Religious Affections, p. 206; italics not in original). In addition, this new sense leads saints in the right direction and offers them guidance. It is the Holy Spirit’s job to give the believer this new perception of things, to show him the meaning of concepts. Furthermore, the Holy Spirit begins to reformulate one’s attitude and awareness. The saint acquires new knowledge and sensibility of God and the universe (Erdt, 1980,p. 29ff.; Knutson 2011, p. 69; Goen, 1972, p. 27). This new “habit of…mind” (RA, 283) and perception of things is an evidence of grace, of faith and a new birth. The indwelling of the Spirit causes the convert to perform in a way previously unknown to him. Individuals that have been truly converted should be able to feel and see the change they have undergone. On one analogy Edwards describes this new sense as an intimate friendship. A man’s deep affection for a friend “direct[s] him far more readily and exactly to a speech and deportment, or manner of behavior” (RA, 283). These new senses, inclinations and ways of looking at things should be seen as proof of the signs of grace and an authentic conversion. A saint should be able to tell and know that they are truly regenerated and new beings in Christ as they do not act, feel or think the same way they used to. There is a clear contrast between their old inclinations and their new perception of things (Brown, 2005, p. 93, Erdt, 1980, p. 13). However, it is interesting to see that Edwards distinguishes between worldly emotions and feelings and affections that are brought about by the Spirit of God. As mentioned above, Edwards all too often saw people weeping, screaming or getting emotional in any kind of way during services and revivals. There were not to be equated with the work of God. Ward writes: "True religion...consists primarily in affections, such as love and joy. These are not emotions, but depend on understanding the object of love as well as receiving the gift of joy"(Ward, 2008, p. 7). True affections showcase God 's presence and working in one 's soul. This shows that although Edwards greatly emphasized the importance of each saint 's religious experience he did not see all as valid proof of regeneration. When trying to detect a true convert Edwards did not see himself as the judge. Rather, he saw it necessary that each individual examine himself as stated in 2. Corinth. 13:5 “Examine yourselves, whether ye be in the faith; prove your own selves. Know ye not your own selves, how that Jesus Christ is in you, except ye be reprobates?” The only way an individual can truly know if they have been changed is by examining their own life and analyzing their apparent transformation. Only the individual knows his true character and will be able to discern and identify any changes (Knutson 2011, p. 67). However, not all Puritans saw it as the individual’s job to discern their spiritual growth. As mentioned in the beginning, many Puritans, including Edwards’ grandfather, would closely examine a ‘saint’s’ life before letting him become a church member. They would employ pastors and elders of the church who would analyze an individual’s behavior and would seek for signs of conversion. Therefore it is very interesting to see how Edwards give prominence to an individual’s experience. Most people think of the Puritan life and relegate it to strictness and simply ‘following what the Good Book says’ whether you feel it or not. However, for Jonathan Edwards, true religion was not a matter of simply obeying the law a distant deity has set up. It was so much more than that. On the contrary, Edwards wanted to show that the right kinds of "feelings" and "emotions" or better yet affections are a crucial part to a saint’s Christian life and his walk with God Almighty. An encounter with the Lord of lords will not only yield orthodoxy, it will also produce pure love and deep affections for God. Miller writes the following about the Puritan life: “There was in Puritanism a peity, a religious passion, the sense of an inward communication, and of the divine symbolism of nature. One side of the Puritan nature hungered for these excitements; certain of its appetites desired these satisfactions and therefore found delight and ecstasy in the doctrines of regeneration and providence But in Puritanism there was also another side, an ideal of social conformity, of law and order,of regulation and control. At the core of the theology there was an indestructible element which was mystical; and a feeling for the universe which was almost pantheistic; but there was also a social code demanding obedience to external law, a code to which good people voluntarily conformed and to which bad people should be made to conform” (Miller, 1940, p. 600)
Only by undergoing the changes the Holy Spirit brings and recognizing them can the true believer understand God and gain deeper insight into who God is and what he is like. He shows that by regenerating a soul and creating change, God wants the individual to be aware of what the Creator is doing in his life. Every saint should seek after a personal and fulfilling experience with his Maker. One might see this stress of self- evaluation counterproductive to society as it could produce selfishness and exclusiveness. The individual could preoccupy themselves with trying to analyze their behavior in order to desperately see signs of grace. In turn, one might become focused on themselves and their own life. There is no time for being involved in the lives of others and ministering them as one is engrossed in searching for indication of regeneration (Quinn, 2003, p. 307). Although, Edwards placed much emphasis on an individual’s own experience; I do not believe it was Edwards’ intention to put people at a place in their life where they solely focused on themselves and their own spiritual growth. Edwards was simply trying to name and elaborate on different kinds of evidences of true faith. There obviously has to remain a balance between analyzing one’s own performance and being engaged with society. True Religion, for Edwards, was not only the outward conforming to certain standards, but an inner felt change. Kuklick writes: “To the extent that empiricism was a distinct position in the middle of the eighteenth century, Edwards was an empiricist. But he also believed that the supernatural was conveyed in experience: he was an experimental Calvinist” (Kuklick, 1941, p. 32)
3. Jonathan Edwards and Science
3.1. Science as a Way to Know God
The great pastors and teachers of the generations prior to Edwards endeavored to know the world they lived in in order to understand their Creator. They wanted to find this “hidden divinity within the cosmos” (Knutson 2011, p.64). Through technologia they could attain to hidden knowledge and objective truth. This idea allowed for an abstract relationship with the world God created and the truths that can be found in it. Edwards on the other hand believed that an individual could share a close bond with the divine. In Miscallanies he states that “Intelligent beings are created to be the consciousness of the universe, that they may perceive what God is and does” (Edwards Misc. no. 87). It is the individual’s duty and responsibility to try and comprehend the nature of things and God Almighty. The way Jonathan Edwards relied on empiricism is one of the characteristics of the Christian Enlightenment during the 17th and 18th century. One can see that the methodology of science was more so based on experience and empiricism than on theory.
Just like many of the Puritans during the 17th and 18th century, Jonathan Edwards made use of the new developments in the realms of Philosophy and Science “made by such men as Bacon, Descartes, Boyle, Locke, and Newton” in order to showcase God’s glory and majesty. New advancements were able to reveal to the human being the perfection and expertise the Creator had to have had when he established the world with all its details and technicality.”Edwards adopted an inductive method when using rationalistic material in their religious writings.” (Whitmann). Furthermore Edwards did not only seek to experience and demonstrate the splendor and magnificence of God by beholding nature. He wanted to acquire a deeper knowledge and understanding of the deity by studying and analyzing the world we live in.
By studying and observing nature one will also obtain understanding of the attributes of God. This can be seen in Edwards’ Spider Letter. This can be seen in Edwards’ Spider Letter. He is amazed at the way they “[m]arch trough the air from one tree to another” and “sail in the air”. Furthermore he is greatly astonished at the beauty of their “shining webs and glistening strings”. (Edwards, Spider Letter, p. 1-2). Edwards asserts that while beholding the manner of spiders and other little insects he continues to notice even more overwhelming facts. However, Edwards’ aim was not simply to admire and worship nature as something beautiful and leave it at that (Ralph Waldo Emerson) We see this strong admiration for creation in the current of Transcendentalism. In his lecture “The Uses of Natural Theology”, Emerson praises and glorifies nature to a high extent. In his opinion every individual should engage in nature in order to experience true self and God. One can say that Emerson did not believe in one God as Master over his creation. Rather he wanted to show that divinity could be found and experienced in nature by everyone. Perry Miller writes:”He (Emerson) believed that the Over-Soul (God), this dread universal essence, which is beauty, love, wisdom and power all in one, is present in nature and throughout nature” (Miller, 1940, p. 589- Jonathan Edwards to Emerson). Hence the individual should just adore and appreciate nature instead of drawing conclusions of the divine creator and glorifying him. Edwards, on the contrary, wanted to showcase nature´s charm in order to directly point to the Creator. In his conclusion of the Spider Letter he states that it is the “wisdom of the Creator” and the “exuberant “goodness of the Creator, who hath not only provided for all the necessities, but also for the pleasure and recreation of all sorts of creatures, even insects. Thus Edwards wanted to glorify his Maker by giving him credit for the excellency of his creation. In another essay, Of Being, Edwards warns people of making a “gross mistake” by [t]hinking material things the most substantial beings, and spirits more like a shadow.” (Edwards, Of Bring, ). Theodore Hornberger asserts that “Edwards...was primarily anxious to save God and spirit and religion from the scientific glorification of matter.” (Hornberger 1937, p. 197). Furthermore, we know that Edwards not only wanted to prove a divine being, he wanted to direct individuals to the God of the Scriptures. The 18th century deists acknowledged a God who had created the universe, but who was a distant creator and not interested in his creation (Kuklick, 1985, p.21). This obviously was not Jonathan Edwards’ stance. A. V. G. Allen writes: “When the prevailing deism represented God as if a passive agent, governing the world by general laws and second causes, as well as far removed from the scene of human activity, Edwards presented a deity as imminent and efficient will” (Edwards, 1889, p.58.). Instead of warning against the dangers of science, as others have done, Jonathan Edwards took advantage of the new scientific developments in order to steer people to the God of the Bible and his plan for mankind. By observing nature and practicing science one would be able to comprehend God on a deeper level. Walker calls Edwards “the chief human instrument in turning back the current for over a century in the larger part of New England to the theory of salvation and of man’s dependence on God, which marked the earlier types of Calvinism” (Walker, 1901, p. 232.)

3.2. Book of Nature vs. Book of God
Jonathan Edwards found great pleasure in studying different advancements and technological developments in science. He wanted to acquire all the knowledge he could about the scientific discoveries in his day and age. However, his goal was to acquire a deeper religious revelation. When an individual seeks out to understand the universe, he in turn will have greater knowledge about his Creator (Knight, 2005, p. 191). Although Jonathan Edwards wrote many a book on scientific and philosophical topics, one has to understand his aim and purpose and how the Bible fits into his works and thought. Robert E. Brown states: “Jonathan Edwards biblical interpretation is the subject most neglected in the study of his writings and intellectual pursuits (…) [e]ven his more properly theological and philosophical treatises rely heavily on the Bible for the substance of their arguments.” (Brown, 2011, p. 87). This cannot be overlooked. In the previous section we saw how during the Christian Enlightenment the Puritans sought to use the scientific findings in their favor. New advancements in science pointed to a benevolent God who not only designed the world in perfection, but also desired contact with his creation. But this new way of looking at nature and experiencing God was not to discard the Bible and its manifestation of God and his nature in any way. The Bible was still to be seen as the ultimate Authority and science was to be made subject to it. Brown also asserts that “one should not draw the conclusion, however, that Edwards’ biblical interpretation was not “modern” in the truest and most contextually appropriate sense of the term” (Brown 2005, p. 96). He proceeds by mentioning Edwards’ “Natural Philosophy” and his “Spider Letter”. These works not only showcase his fascination with the new discoveries, but also his willingness to accept these developments as the truth. One can say that Edwards did not see a threat to the Scriptures. It was his goal to demonstrate how science and the Bible were compatible. “Edwards was unwilling to accept the notion… that the ancient biblical authors’ representation of the world could not be brought into conformity with modern history and science” (Brown, 2005, p. 96). In spite of his enthusiasm for the scientific writings of his time and his hunger to know more, the Bible always remained of great importance to Edwards. Samuel Hopkins stated that out of all the books Jonathan Edwards read, he studied the Bible “more than all other books” (Hopkins, 1804, p.88); and Edwards himself confirms in his Personal Narrative that he had "the greatest delight in the holy Scriptures, of any book whatsoever" (Edwards, Personal Narrative, 16:797) According to Edwards, it was still of great importance to receive the Bible as a revelation from God to man. In is Miscellanies he writes that observing creation “is not sufficient for the discovery of the religion of nature. ‘Tis therefore unreasonable to suppose that philosophy might supply the defect of revelation.” Furthermore, he states that without God revealing truth to the individual “there is no one doctrine of that which we call natural religion [but] would…forever be involved in darkness, doubts, endless disputes and dreadful confusion” (Misc. 1337, 23:342-45). For Edwards this revelation from God was of utmost importance. For one, we learn how to communicate with God through his revelation. As it is written “God is a spirit: and they that worship him must worship him in spirit and in truth” (John 4:24). Edwards writes: “God made spirits to have communion” (Misc. 204, 13:339). Revelation is necessary because it yields communication with our Maker. Is this not what people long for? In addition, the Bible can not only show us God’s creation, but also reveal Christ’s redemptive work on the cross. Although science, as well as the Word of God, scan showcase God’s desire to have fellowship with his creation and his greatness, only the Bible can convey spiritual truth and discernment (Erdt, 1980,p. 33ff.). By observing nature one might come to believe in a deity, but how will one know who that deity is. For the Puritans this was obviously the Judeo- Christian God and not Allah, the Muslim deity. Furthermore one cannot necessarily understand biblical truths such as the Trinity or Salvation. In order to comprehend the great truths in the Bible one needs to experience divine revelation. Without it an individual cannot truly know God or understand him. Quite to the contrary, one might even arrive at false conclusions of God and his character. One has to add that although every individual can observe nature and derive at some kind of conclusion of a God, only the elect have a special kind of perception of the world; this we saw in Religious Affections. When the Holy Spirit of God begins to change a person’s consciousness of things, the saint will be able to genuinely understand and grasp God’s character in light of his creation. A true believer has a “new capacity of perception” (Brown, 2005, p. 93) that “sweetly corresponds and harmonizes with the expressions of God’s word… as one instrument of music answers of itself to another in harmony and accord” (Misc.126, 13:290). In this aspect Jonathan Edwards differs from the 17th and 18th century deists, who believed that “true religion could be fashioned without any special, direct communication from God. This is not possible according to Edwards as without having first experienced God and shared some communication with him, an individual cannot know God. Moreover one has to mention that after a person has been regenerated, he will also be able to understand the scriptures. As it is written:”But the natural man receiveth not the things of the Spirit of God: for they are foolishness unto him: neither can he know them, because they are spiritually discerned” (1. Corinthians 2:14). Erdt writes: “ Spiritual matters do not really interest the unregenerate mind, not enough for it to purpose and confront them, and since it does not experience them it can only posses an abstract, or speculative knowledge” (Erdt, 1980, p. 8). Edwards, as well as other renowned Puritans such as Mather, believed in both the book of nature and the book of God. However, these were not equal in authority. While nature can show us a benevolent God who excellently fashioned his universe and designed the laws in it, only the Scriptures can reveal Christ to an individual and other spiritual biblical truths. As Janice Knight puts it: “Though scripture remained the surest guide to holy truths, in documents … Edwards declared his faith that nature and human history are also legitimate sources of revelation, communicating God’s purpose to his saints” (Knight, 2005, p. 190) Therefore the book of nature is subject to the word of God. The individual should seek to know and understand God through his word first and foremost and then explore nature in order to fully fathom God’s nature- his wisdom, perfection, and his love for his children.

4. Aesthetics in Science and Religion/ The Concept of Beauty "The beauty of the world consists wholly of sweet mutual consents, either within itself, or with the Supreme Being. As to the corporal world, though there are many other sorts of consents, yet the sweetest and most charming beauty of it is its resemblance of spiritual beauties. The reason is that spiritual beauties are infinitely the greatest, and bodies being but the shadow of beings, they must be so much the more charming as they shadow forth spiritual beauties. This beauty is peculiar to natural things, it surpassing the art of man." (Edwards, Beauty of the World,(1725) p. 1)

The question of beauty in nature and religion was crucial to Edwards’ idea of Religion and Science. Delattre states that “beauty is for him (Edwards) a ontological reality, so fundamental to the nature of reality that it plays a central role in the development of his thought” (Delattre, 2003, p. 280). In Edwards opinion, art played a crucial role in the saint‘s life as it allows the saint „to conceive, and subsequently receive or revive, the particular emotional sensation that constitutes the religious experience“(Erdt, 1980, xi). According to Edwards, once the Holy Spirit regenerates an individual and creates faith within, that saint experiences a feeling of sweetness, „ an aesthetic response, a reaction to, or perception of, spiritual beauty“(Erdt, 1980, xiii). Because of this new perception of things, the saved individual now has a sense of aesthetics sui generis. This new sense of charm serves to distinguish the elect from the reprobates and offers a blessed assurance of salvation. Regeneration was for the believer an aesthetic experience. As a result, the saint now had the opportunity to experience something that prior to his regeneration could only be known intellectually. Although an unregenerate individual can perceive beauty, he does not have the awareness of the believer. The believer can discover God’s glory in nature and grasp his beauty (Quinn 311) However, this new feeling and perception of beauty is not constant. The religious experiences are not static as they come and go. Applying Locke’s new psychology of the mind, Edwards concluded that in order to grasp certain concepts of the Spirit the mind “may substitute images derived from its ideas of nature, from the fantasies of the imagination, or from works of art. The feeling of beauty can surrogate the sense of the heart, and thereby allow for a natural conception of divine beauty, or recall the sensation of spiritual beauty once it has faded” (Erdt, 1980, xiii). For Edwards, there was a strong correspondence between aesthetics in nature and religion. Whenever he observed the beauties in the world he saw a deeper beauty, a spiritual resemblance. These he considered to be "more palpable and explicable" (Edwards, Beauty of the World, 1725, p. 1) secret beauties. He delighted more in these spiritual beauties as they showcased eternal truth of the Word of God. Nature serves merely as a reminder of a greater beauty and a purpose in life. Here we see again, how admiring nature is used to celebrate religion and God. When looking at creation, Edwards does not only seek to discover God’s character. He takes it a step further and associates different things in the world with biblical truths and doctrines. In his Images of Divine Things, we see this more clearly. Instead of merely watching creation, and admiring it for what it is, Edwards want to seek out a religious significance. By likening water to the wrath of God or ravens to unclean spirits, Edwards is not only pointing to a God, who created the waters and the birds, but he is also directing the reader to the Christian religion. In his opinion, God purposely orders and arranges creation in a way so that the person can deduce truths from nature. Truths that will help the individual grow closer to the God of the Bible- the God, who not only designed the world, but who also wants to reveal spiritual truths through the material (Edwards, Images of the Divine, 1728, p. 1ff.).

5. Jonathan Edwards: A scientist and Christian
Jonathan Edwards devoted a lot of time to science in order to show God’s greatness and perfection. He made an attempt to show that new scientific advancements demonstrated certain attributes of God. Edwards did it just simply admire nature for what it was. He had his purpose. Being a theologian, Jonathan Edwards acquire a deeper knowledge of the God of the Bible while helping others do so as well. When listening to his sermons, we can see that he in no way compromised his understanding of biblical truths to aesthetics in nature. In numerous writings of his we see his love and passion for Christ. In Works he writes: “to lie in the dust, and to be full of Christ alone; to love him with a holy and pure love; to trust in him; to live upon him; to serve and follow him; and to be perfectly sanctified and be made pure, with a divine and heavenly purity” (Edwards, Works, 1844, p. 25) During his college years Edwards was introduced to newer developments in the realm of science and “absorbed the major works of rationalist metaphysics and the scientific and “empirical” learning of Isaac Newton and John Locke” (Kuklick, 1985, p. 16). Edwards reading of Locke 's Essay is said to be the "central and decisive event of his intellectual development" (Thuesen, 2005, p. 22)These discoveries were to slightly modify his concept of God. One the one hand Locke introduced XY . Newton’s “reflection on space and its connection to the deity, to space as an expression of God’s mind” (Kuklick, 1985, p. 19). Although Edwards accepted Locke’s argument that there are primary and secondary qualities, he gave the primary qualities a new definition. These primary qualities could be reduced to solidity, which was simply put resistance. For Edwards atoms “were conceived as centers of energy” which “being constant and active... depended upon God”.(cf. Kuklick, 1985, p. 19ff). Edwards writes: “[T]he substance of bodies at last become either nothing, or nothing but the Deity is acting in that particular manner in those parts of space where he thinks fit. So that speaking most strictly, there is no proper substance but God himself” (Anderson, p, 215.). Erdt states that Edwards’ sense of the heart is generally regarded as a memento of Edwards’ reading of Locke” (Erdt, 1980, xii). In his opinion, Jonathan Edwards utilized Locke’s thinking and applied it to his doctrine of regeneration (Ibid). Furthermore we can see Edwards utilizing science in other writings. In Freedom of the Will, Edwards "draws on Locke in rejecting the traditional psychology dividing the human being into various distinct faculties, and Edwards seems to draw on Locke 's empiricism in other places, such as the Religious Affections, where the "new spiritual sense" has Lockean understones" (Thuesen, 2005, p. 22). Although Edwards utilized much of Locke 's thinking, he did not share Locke’s opinion in all matters. While Locke "distrusted metaphysical speculation and endeavored to show in his Essay the limits of human and understanding. Edwards remained more traditionally speculative, though the extent of his speculation remains a matter of debate, with some scholars pointing to his apparent commitment to occasionalism (the idea that God, as the sole cause, continuously recreates the world), and others explaining his view of divine causation in terms of God’s continual upholding of finite laws and habits. The young Edwards also espoused an un- Lockean immaterialism in which “God is as it were the only substance” (6:398; cf. “Misc” 177, 13:327) and in which existence was entirely dependent on divine perception” (Thuesen, 2005, p. 22). In response to this Thomas Schafer states that this view “reduce[s] the universe to God looking at himself in the mirror (Schafer, Moreover, Edwards shared the common Puritan belief creatio continua, in contrast to the deists. God did not create the world and continued to watch his creation from a distance. Rather, Edwards saw the Creator as an “inexhaustible reality, an emanating light, communicating himself as extra as the sun communicated its brilliance” (Kuklick, 1985, p. 21). God was intertwined into reality and worked his will trough it. Miller asserts: “Holding himself by the brute will power within the forms of ancient Calvinism, he filled those forms with a new and throbbing spirit. Beneath the dogmas of the old theology he discovered a different cosmos from that of the seventeenth century, a dynamic world, filled with the presence of God, quickened with divine life, pervaded with joy and ecstasy” (Miller, 1940, p. 605). It has oftentimes been ascribed to Edwards that he had a somewhat pantheistic understanding of God. For him God was a substance that radiated throughout nature, worked through all this, and made man by his substance. One could conclude that man is divine in nature. This concept, however, is not compatible with the scriptures as the Bible clearly teaches that God is a transcendent being separate from his creation.
While in some writings science and theology seem to be intertwined, others have a stronger theological content. Quinn argues that some of Edwards’ works or more philosophical and lack the theological content. He writes: “It seems to me that the discussion Edwards conducts in The Nature of True Virtue would allow us to move some distance toward disentangling Edwards the philosopher from Edwards the theologian” (Quinn, 2003,p. 301). From his writing it is clear that, in Edwards’ opinion, the prerequisite for this love for other beings is the love for the Being (God). Without this love we cannot truly love others. X sees this as problematic. In Honoring Edwards he writes: “What is more, Edwards himself takes it something akin to a psychological law that, when one generally benevolent person encounters another, they will love one another just because they share a love for Being in general” (Quinn, 2003, p. 302) However, this can be somewhat confusing. Edwards assumes that everyone will love one another based on the love for the Being (God). What about those who do not have a love for God, or who do not even believe in a deity? Edwards seems to be addressing only the elect as only they have this special kind of love and grace for others. Furthermore, one could ask what about the people who exemplify true charity and virtue and are not Christians? Where does their love and selflessness come from? Edwards would most likely argue that the virtue lost people might have cannot be compared with the unique kind of goodness that can only come from the Holy Spirit. One can say that this law of psychology might only apply to the elect. When reading Edwards writings one can see his fascination with nature itself. Throughout his life Edwards endeavored to showcase God’s beauty and majesty in the world. Not only does God reveal himself through his word; he also reveals himself through nature. Edwards wanted to show how both the Bible as well as nature proved God’s benevolence and his intent. In additions, nature can convey and resemble spiritual truths. Knight writes: “He (Edwards) read the drama of Christ’s death and resurrection in the cycles of the sun, the phases of the moon, and even in the emergence of the silkworm from its cocoon” (Knight, 2005, p. 190).
From a theological point of view, Edwards was interested in God’s character and his ways, the person and deity of Christ, the trinity and other biblical truths. He especially wanted to find spiritual truths and resemblances in the creation of God.
As a pastor who had witnessed many revival meetings, Edwards was more or less obsessed with the conversion experience. He wanted to understand the Spirits work in a soul and how this work was manifested. He also wanted the members of his church to evaluate their own lives for signs of grace.
Edwards is known for his romantic sounding religion that yields affections and fills the soul with love and joy. True religion was to make one happier and give one a better quality of life as one rests assured Jesus Christ. However, as a theologian Edwards was rather strict and wanted his congregation to be well behaved and shun the very appearance of evil. Therefore there was a lot of pressure from the pulpit to perform and behave in a “Christian” way. As a result his relationship with his church was not always harmonious. Bruce Kuklick writes:” Edwards could not deal with backsliding, and he demanded that his congregation maintain its revivalistic piety” (Kuklick, 1941, p. 270. When the church did not behave in a way Edwards approved he would he would either enforce church discipline or change policies such as admittance to the Lord’s Supper or requirements for church membership. Its seems quite ironic how a pastor who wrote so much about virtue and love would have a hard time getting along with his congregation and vice versa. Edwards should have practiced what he preached and perhaps exhibited more patience with his flock. Towards the end of the 1740s the majority of Edwards’ congregation decided to vote him out. What good does it do to know how to write about the changes the indwelling of the Holy Spirit produces and not being able to get along with others? In my opinion, this is problematic. A Christian should not only strive to understand God’s word, but also make sure that he passes on the “fruits of the Spirit” to other people.
Before Edwards was converted he “wrote in the tradition of Christian metaphysics” (Kuklick, 1941, p. 28). After being a Christian for a number of years he turned his attention to Reformed theology and “relied more heavily than before on the Bible and on prior Calvinist thought in the Reformed theological tradition” (Kuklick, 1941, p. 28). While Edwards wanted his writings to be congruent with experience, he also wanted to make sure that his works did not contradict the Bible. Perhaps what is most interesting about Edwards is that did not choose between science and religion. He did not see a need for that. He simply embraced both-although the Bible played a more prominent role- and created his own writings by mixing the ideas of science and religion. Thuesen describes Edwards disposition towards religion and science quite well. He writes: “The tension in Edwards between traditional and Enlightenment forms of thought- though omnipresent and at times even stark- never developed into a simple “either/or” proposition. The complex of ideas in Edwards on virtually any question of philosophy or theology defies a clear- cut genealogy” (Thuesen, 2005, p. 23). And Quinn asserts: “For the theology and philosophy are tightly and perhaps inextricably interwoven with the total body of his ethical thought” (Quinn, 2003, p. 303).

6.Conclusion
Over the years the works of Jonathan Edwards have undergone great discussion. While some praise him and view him as “America’s greatest theologian” (Quinn, 2003, p. 303), others have criticized his XY.
Jonathan Edwards was born into a religious family of ministers and was therefore determined to assume the role of a pastor. His deeply religious upbringing affected his way of thinking throughout his life. During his college years the universities were undergoing many changes and developments in the realm of science. However, Jonathan Edwards did not see these advancements as threats to his Christian faith. As we have seen Jonathan Edwards was not opposed to science. Rather, he saw science and philosophy as a way to acquire deeper knowledge of God and glorify him. The saint should not only strive to seek God through his word, but he should also pleasure himself with nature in order to understand the world God created- his laws, but also his character- his benevolence, his wisdom and majesty. While Edwards seems to develop a romantic approach to nature, one has to view his love for creation within its context. Jonathan Edwards did not want people to just simply enjoy nature for what it is. Instead, he wanted each individual to find God in nature. This is a crucial point as many people nowadays love nature. Edwards does not want people to simply love nature, but rather to receive pleasure by examining nature for the sole purpose of knowing God. While many people during the X century worshipped nature, they did not do so in light of God. One has to stress that each new advancement in the realm of science was to be seen as a part of God’s greater purpose and a proof for the wisdom and XY of God. Although Edwards relied heavily on the Bible and Calvinist doctrines, he was very interested in other writings of Locke, Newton and other authors. He did not view the writings on new science a threat to Christianity; rather he read these with great interest and borrowed from their writings to come up with his own ideas. I suppose one thing we can learn from Edwards -in regard to the relationship of science and religion- is that science and religion do not have to be opposed to each other. A Christian can be interested in science and not be an “enemy of the faith”. However one has to note that Edwards did not accept every philosopher’s writing of his time as the truth. He read them with great interest, used some of their thought, intermingled them with his own and discarded other opinions if they were not in line with the word of God. What would have been really interesting to see would be how Edwards dealt with the theory of evolution? Would he have accepted the notion that man evolved from an ape. I personally doubt that Edwards, a devout scholar of the scriptures, would have accepted such a claim since the Bible clearly states that the Lord created man ex nihilo. Could Edwards have viewed science as something dangerous from then on? We are only left to speculation. Whether one agrees with his writings or not, the immense impact he has made on religion and science cannot be denied.

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